Chapter 9.

PASSENGER BUILDING

9.1 ABOUT THIS CHAPTER

This chapter deals with planning for facilities to accommodate those activities associated with the transfer of passengers and their baggage from the point of interchange between ground transportation and the passenger building to the point of connexion with the aircraft, and with the transfer of connecting and in‑transit passengers and their baggage between flights. Planning principles, factors affecting the type and scale, and specific planning details of various passenger building functions are presented in this chapter.

9.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

9.2.1 In passenger building planning it is necessary to provide the means for passengers to enter and leave their cars or public transport vehicles, parking for cars and public transport vehicles, buildings in which aircraft operators can undertake passenger processing and where government control authorities can undertake their inspections and in which all necessary facilities for passengers' comfort and assistance can be provided.

9.2.2 Aircraft operations will be less costly and more efficient if the passenger building is as close as possible to the runways. This reduces taxiing distances, and hence fuel consumption and helps to avoid congestion by reducing the time spent by aircraft in ground movement. Care must be exercised, however, to ensure that expansibility and flexibility are not compromised. Therefore, the location of passenger facilities is inseparably associated with the planning of the over‑all runway layout and the total airport plan.

9.2.3 The type and size of the passenger building and the various components within the building will evolve from land‑use requirements activity forecasts (Chapter 3, 3.2 to 3.4), and site evaluations (Chapter 5, 5.2).

9.2.4 For many airports to which this manual is directed, passenger-building facilities will be contiguous, with one general location on the airport. However, in certain circumstances, particular functions such as aircraft maintenance may be situated at locations remote from the main passenger building.

9.2.5 In keeping with the objectives of airport master planning, the development of passenger building plans should be limited to conceptual studies and drawings. Such drawings should not be so detailed as to preclude adjustments which evolve later in the detailed planning phase. Such changes frequently occur as an airport development project moves beyond the master-planning phase to final design and construction.

9.2.6 One of the most important objectives in the development of the passenger building is provision for all of the necessary passenger services at an optimum cost, while recognizing the need for flexibility and expansibility, as well as economy of any future passenger building expansion.

Planning Principles

9.2.7 The passenger building's function ‑ interchange between transport modes ‑ combines with passengers' physical and psychological characteristics to make the passenger area a most sensitive part of the whole air transport system. In considering the planning of these facilities any preconceptions about the result should be eliminated, except that the facilities should provide comfortable, convenient and speedy movement of passengers and baggage between air and ground transport at the lowest effective cost and should be able to accommodate expanding traffic without extensive modification.

Characteristics of passenger areas

9.2.8 Well‑designed passenger buildings are usually the result of close co‑operation between all the members of the planning team concerned, both those whose task it is to lay down the requirements and those, particularly architects and engineers, who have to translate the requirements into detailed designs. Although each group has its own primary responsibility, it can also help the other in many ways. In what follows there is no attempt to lay down principles of design but only to set out some planning principles that are likely to influence design.

(a) For general layout, passengers should be thought of as forming a homogeneous flow, whether constant or intermittent.

(b) The majority of passengers are content to form part of the main flow and require clear indications of what they are expected to do and the flow routes they should follow.

(c) Passengers have individual needs, preferences and (sometimes) disabilities. Some of these requirements involve the airport in extra expense (e.g. facilities for invalids, disabled and elderly persons); others can bring in revenue (e.g. concessions).

(d) A system that attracts passengers to the routes required by the flow pattern will often give better results than one that appears to offer no alternative, particularly if it also gives some freedom for individual requirements.

Separation of functions

9.2.9 The key to achieving the planning objectives is simplicity. In the context of passenger planning it means simple, obvious flow routes. Complex flow routes usually arise from complex plans and buildings. Complex buildings are usually costly, inflexible and not readily expansible as a logical extension of the plan and operating system. The facilities may still be costly if so desired, but this will not be an unavoidable consequence of the plan and operating concept. Separation of functions is the principal aid to achievement of simplicity. If other facilities, such as multi‑storey office blocks, car parks, control towers, etc., are incorporated with passenger buildings, not only does the flow plan tend to be distorted but flexibility is seriously compromised by the presence of these facilities, and also by the structural features they impose on the building. Figure 9‑1 illustrates each of the important functions of a passenger building and gives an approximation of various passenger and baggage processing interrelationships. Planning requirements for each of these components are described, in turn, in subsequent sections of this chapter.

Size of passenger buildings

9.2.10 For passenger convenience, a large area in the passenger building should be broken down into units or modules, since it is difficult to construct a single building which can accommodate aircraft parking positions for high runway capacities and still maintain passenger walking distances within reasonable limits. A walking distance of about 300 m from the centre of the air side of the passenger building to the farthest aircraft parking position has been generally accepted as the reasonable limit. However, even this can result in passengers having to walk long distances to make connexions between one aircraft, although judicious allocation of stands can reduce such cases to a minimum. The size of the modular passenger unit is very important and should be the best compromise responding to the physical limitations of passengers and the economics of construction and operation of the passenger building and apron. Further discussion on factors affecting passenger terminal size may be found in 9.2.32 through 9.2.39.

Layout of passenger buildings

9.2.11 Passenger buildings should be associated with car parks and aprons, etc., of the necessary capacity. When the passenger movement rate exceeds the capacity of the optimum size building, additional buildings should be provided, each complete with its own associated full complement of facilities. The layout of these modular passenger units within the passenger building plan should include the necessary apron space, car parking and road circulation space in the most compact arrangement to minimize transfer distances between the passenger buildings, and between the associated facilities within each modular unit.

9.2.12 These units should be arranged in the simplest manner possible to provide an easily comprehensible environment to facilitate free flow of vehicles and people, and to provide a flexible and expansible layout capable of adaptation to future possible requirements. Transfer routes will be required for passengers and baggage on the airside, within customs bond, and land side. The nature of these transport systems should be considered in conjunction with town centre/airport public transport systems to which all the passenger buildings should be conveniently linked.

Flow principles

9.2.13 The following flow principles should be considered, to the extent it is practical, and evaluated against local circumstances. Particular regard should be paid to the separation of functions. The passenger flow plan should be the first to be considered. Baggage movement is of equal importance since it should be integrated with the passenger flow but, because baggage is inanimate, it is easier to make the baggage flow compatible with the best passenger flow. In practice the flow plans should be tested against one another at all stages.

9.2.14 Flow principles to consider with respect to passengers include:

(a) Routes should be short, direct and self‑evident. They should not, as far as is practicable, conflict with nor cross the flow routes of other passenger, baggage or vehicular traffic.

(b) Changes in level of pedestrian routes should be avoided as far as is practicable.

(c) Passengers should be able to proceed through a building without the need to rely on guidance or instruction from staff. The flow system should be for "trickle flow" rather than controlled movement in groups.

(d) In heavy traffic conditions, mass flows can only be achieved by the use of trunk routes. Particular categories of passengers should be diverted from the main flow route to pass through specific controls only at the last point on the main flow route where the character of the traffic changes.

(e) Departing passengers should have an opportunity to check their baggage at the earliest possible point.

(f) Each flow route should, as far as is practicable, be in one direction only. Where a reverse flow has to be provided it should be via a self‑contained and separate route. Flow routes and milling spaces (areas of random movement) are necessarily complementary to each other but are separate functions. Therefore, milling spaces should be adjacent to but not part of the flow routes.

(g) Free flow through all parts of the routes between air and ground transport should be interrupted as little as possible. While government control authorities and aircraft operators determine their own procedures, the plan should provide for them in the best manner to achieve passenger convenience, maximum security, optimum utilization of staff and minimum cost for aircraft operators and control authorities.

(h) Every control point in the flow system has a potential to delay and also to irritate and confuse passengers. The delay is caused not only by the time needed for officials to carry out their procedures but also the reaction time of passengers. This reaction time consists of the time taken to realize that a control has to be passed, to understand its nature and to find the necessary documents. This time will be increased for some passengers by lack of understanding of foreign languages, illiteracy, or confusion. These effects can be reduced minimizing controls and concentrating them at the fewest number of points. This can also improve utilization of staff by permitting great flexibility.

(i) Passengers should not have to pass through the same type of control more than once. Thus, if procedures or controls are established in more than one place the flow routes should be planned to permit passengers to bypass all subsequent controls of the same type.

(j) The last control which passenger should pass through is security. Any controls established at an airport for screening of passengers and their hand baggage should be sufficiently remote from the boarding gate as to provide maximum restriction of unauthorized access to aircraft. Moreover, provision should be made for a "sterile" buffer area between the security control point and the aircraft. See Doe 8973 and ECAR 9 for further information.

(k) Flow routes should be planned to give visual continuity to the maximum possible extent. As a minimum it is essential that there should be visual continuity from one functional stage of the flow route to the next, e.g. from baggage claim to customs or from check‑in to immigration. Such continuity assists passengers' understanding of the flow system and draws them on in a steady flow through each successive stage. A visual blockage, such as exists where each function 6r authority is contained in a separate room, is confusing and creates the need for signs, broadcast instructions or staff supervision of passengers.

(l) Features which cause hesitancy, such as ambiguous terminology on signs, flow routes which appear to lead in the wrong direction, and multi‑directional junctions should be avoided.

(m) The speed of flow and capacity of the passenger routes should be matched to that of other systems, such as baggage flow and aircraft turnaround time, and to the over‑all capacity of the airport. The fastest possible passenger flow or highest possible capacity, far from being an advantage, will create frustration, delay, congestion and criticism if it is not balanced by all parts of the airport system.

9.2.15 For those parts of the passenger flow routes where baggage accompanies passengers, the passenger flow principles also apply to baggage. Baggage flow routes are those parts of the system which are specifically for baggage handling when it is separated from passengers. The general planning principles also apply to baggage systems planning. Passenger considerations have to be noted at those points where the passenger and baggage flows come together, and they can consequently influence aspects of the whole baggage system.

Signing considerations

9.2.16 In order to realize the full capacity potential of the passenger building, an orderly flow of both passengers and baggage must be achieved to assure this orderly flow. Prudent use of the system of international signs is necessary in order to assist air travellers in locating various facilities and services (See Doc 9430).

Airport Passenger and Service Characteristics

Passenger characteristics

9.2.17 The two main categories of passengers are those who travel for business purposes and those who travel for tourism, personal, or religious reasons. The business passenger is usually more experienced and will often use the full range of passenger building services available to the public, time permitting. Other types of passengers include a high percentage who are less experienced and familiar with airline procedures and the available passenger building services and concessions.

9.2.18 Significant variations in the characteristics and ratio of these passenger types can influence passenger building space requirements and staffing. One example relates to small or medium airports serving vacation centres, pilgrimage centres, and resort areas with relatively short seasons. This type of airport will require different passenger building facilities than airports handling similar peak volumes of predominantly business travellers. Nearby military installations may warrant additional or different processing facilities and services. Also, those airports having a significant number of non‑travelling visitors must provide adequate space in the passenger building so as not to impede the orderly flow of passengers.

9.2.19 Additional primary characteristics of pass- angers are thus:

(a) International. Passengers travelling between countries and subject to inspection by government frontier control agencies.

(b) Domestic. Passengers travelling on routes, which begin and end within the boundaries of a single State and not subject to government control inspection. For planning purposes this category also includes all passengers on routes which are exempted from government control inspection. This includes traffic within a customs union, economic community of free trade area, in which the national governments have agreed on the free passage of people and goods. Depending on the details of such agreements traffic may be domestic in one direction and international in the other. Thus, the classification between domestic and international applies to the aircraft route and not the origins and destinations of individual passengers as indicated below under ‑Service Characteristics. "

9.2.20 There are further distinctive categories which apply to both aircraft and passengers but which only impose special requirements in respect of passengers. These are:

(a) Departures. Passengers using an airport for the purpose of departing from it by air.

(b) Arrivals. Passengers arriving by aircraft at an airport and not departing by a continuing or connecting flight.

(c) Transit. Passengers who arrive and leave again on the same aircraft. These passengers may remain on the aircraft, in which case they do not create any requirements which planning need take into account. On the other hand, it may be necessary to accommodate them in the passenger building for the duration of the aircraft's stay at the airport, for example to permit the aircraft cabin to be cleaned, and to provide reasonable comfort and facilities for them.

Some transit passengers may also be subject to frontier controls. This applies where part of an aircraft's route is domestic and another part international. Passengers arriving from an international section may be destined for an airport at which frontier control facilities are not provided and will, therefore, have to pass the controls at the transit airport.

(d) Transfer. Some passengers arriving at an airport by air may do so simply to connect with a flight for another destination. For most planning purposes these passengers can be considered as transit passengers except that their baggage needs to be transferred to another aircraft. Some ticketing facilities are required specifically for their use, and planning should therefore take account of this type of traffic.

(e) General aviation and air taxis. There may be a demand for general aviation and a careful cost-benefit analysis should be made to determine whether to intermix this traffic with commercial aviation or to keep it separate. While air taxis may be problem at large airports, this is not usually the case at small‑ or medium‑sized airports.

Service characteristics ‑ scheduled airlines

9.2.21 Airline service characteristics are directly related to the route certificates, bilateral agreements, and structure of each scheduled airline's system. They can generally be categorized into three basic types: originating/terminating station, through station, and transfer/transit station. An airport may be identified as one type for the airline industry in general and at the same time serve as a different type for an individual airline. The characteristics of a particular airport may change as an airline is awarded new routes and develops different connecting patterns and as the results of new bilateral route negotiations are instituted.

9.2.22 An "originating/terminating station" airport is usually characterized by a high percentage of originating passengers (over 70 per cent of total emplacements) and a preponderance of turnaround flights with ground times ranging from 45 to 90 minutes or more. Another characteristic iis in the primary flow of passengers between aircraft and ground transportation vehicles, generating a relatively high requirement for ticket counter, curb length and parking spaces per enplaned passenger as compared with transfer/transit or through stations. Passengers will usually require maximum baggage‑handling services for checking and claiming baggage. Typical domestic peak conditions will show hourly aircraft movements per gate averaging about 0.9 to 1.1.

9.2.23 A ‑through station" airport has a relatively high percentage of originating passengers combined with a low percentage of originating flights, resulting in shorter aircraft ground times than either originating/terminating stations or transfer/transit stations. Another characteristic is that boarding load factors may be lower than those for originating/terminating stations, thereby reducing departure lounge space requirements. Typical domestic peak conditions will show hourly aircraft movements per gate averaging 1.5 to 2.0. Experience in planning for these characteristics indicates the importance of identifying originating passengers separately from total emplacements.

9.2.24 A "transfer/transit station" airport has a significant proportion of passengers transferring from arriving flights to departing flights or arriving and departing on the same aircraft (at least 30 per cent of total emplacements, including online and offline transfers). Aircraft ground servicing times will average 30 to 60 minutes, depending upon connecting patterns and operating policies. By determining the relative proportion of online and offline transfers for each carrier, adjacency of carriers with a high proportion of interchange may help reduce over‑all in‑terminal circulation requirements and between‑flight connecting times. Typical domestic peak conditions will show hourly aircraft movements per gate averaging 1.3 to I.S.

9.2.25 Compared to the same volume of enplan-ements at an originating/terminating station airport, the transfer/transit station airport will have:

‑ less ground transportation activity and a lower requirement for curb frontage;

‑ less need for airline counter positions serving normal ticketing and baggage check‑in, although more positions may be required for flight information and ticket changes;

‑ less requirement for baggage claim area, but more space needs for baggage transfer (online and/or interline baggage);

‑ increased requirements for concessions and public services because of passengers remaining in the terminal while waiting for connecting flights. This is generally related to aircraft ground servicing times; and

‑ increased need for centralized security control locations to assist passengers transferring to other flights.

Service characteristics ‑ non‑scheduled airlines

9.2.26 In addition to their scheduled operations, many airlines operate charter flights, group tour flights, and other types of non‑scheduled passenger service. Additionally, there are a number of certificated supplemental carriers which operate similar types of non‑scheduled service. The certificated supplemental carriers generally operate aircraft similar to those of major international flag carriers, although seating capacities may be higher. Since the supplemental do not lease facilities at most airports, their operations are often handled by a certificated carrier or by a fixed base operator (FBO), who may be located outside the passenger building complex.

9.2.27 Air‑taxi operators constitute another class of non‑scheduled/charter service using aircraft that are generally smaller than those operated by other airlines. At many airports, air‑taxi service is provided outside the passenger building complex.

9.2.28 Airline facility planning for non‑schedule operations involves consideration of the following:

‑ Frequency volumes. Collectively these usually suggest facilities that are more modest and utilitarian than those for scheduled operations.

‑ Group processing. May permit "batch loading" and bypassing otherwise congested elements of the passenger building apron‑terminal. Buses can transport passengers and baggage directly between off‑airport locations (hotels) and aircraft remote from the passenger terminal.

‑ Processing times. May differ substantially from scheduled service. Some charter/group‑tour procedures call for passengers to arrive at the airport two to three hours prior to departure, which increases the number of people in the passenger building well beyond that for scheduled operations. The early arrival requirement is sometimes related to airline staffing and fewer counter positions, thereby producing longer queues and more congestion in the ticketing lobbies.

‑ Operational reliability. For many reasons, charter/ group tour departures and arrivals tend to be delayed more than scheduled flights. This usually increases the number of persons in the terminal or departure lounge areas beyond the norms and patterns typical of scheduled operations.

9.2.29 Consideration of the above factors may suggest facilities different from those normally provided for scheduled operations. At some airports, a relatively high volume of airline charter operations may warrant consideration of separate and modest passenger building facilities for supplemental carriers. In a few cases, one or more scheduled carriers may want aircraft stands and buildings to service charter operations when seasonal peaks or recurring operation patterns exceed the capabilities of facilities leased for their own scheduled operations. Any such proposal should be evaluated thoroughly with the airlines involved, since a separate charter facility may involve considerable inefficiencies in logistics, staffing, ground equipment utilization, and other costs.

Service characteristics ‑ international airlines

9.2.30 Depending upon the geographic locations involved, one characteristic of international service is a tendency toward higher scheduled peaks due to heavy dependence on schedules for city pairs related to time zone crossing. Another characteristic is that of relatively long ground service times (two to three hours for turnarounds, and one hour for through flights) required for long‑range aircraft servicing.

9.2.31 Governmental control and clearance (or preclearance) requirements are major planning considerations, particularly those for the frontier controls and customs baggage facilities. The techniques and procedures used in implementing governmental regulations vary from one location to another and may change periodically.

Factors Affecting Scale of Facilities to be Provided

9.2.32 The final stage of passenger building planning involves assessment of the size of the facilities and their arrangement in the optimum relationship to each other and in accordance with the flow principles. The facilities required will vary according to the number of aircraft operators to be accommodated, their proportionate shares of the traffic, the type of aircraft operated and the nature of the operations.

Number of aircraft operators

9.2.33 For a given volume of traffic the minimum facilities would be required if only one aircraft operator had to be accommodated. The scale and variety of facilities required increases where there are a number of operators. In these circumstances continuity of utilization of facilities tends to decrease.

Allocation of facilities

9.2.34 Aircraft operators often have differing views on the best passenger processing methods. These views, coupled with commercial competition and the consequent wish for separate public identity, often lead aircraft operators to seek allocation of specific parts of passenger areas or buildings to their individual use. While aircraft operators do need fairly localized areas of operation in order to be able to concentrate staff and equipment, separation of operators can lead to an over‑all reduction in utilization of facilities and a consequent increase in their total size and cost.

9.2.35 Minimum cost for the airport will be achieved by the most continuous and homogeneous use of facilities, and passenger convenience will be enhanced by reduction of interchange between various sections of the passenger area or buildings. But certainty of the location of their chosen aircraft operator is also a passenger requirement. So between the partly conflicting interests of the airport authority, aircraft operators and passengers, a compromise is necessary to determine the optimum allocation of facilities.

Developing criteria for the passenger building plan

9.2.36 Specific planning criteria related to demand and capacity cited below, should be developed for the above factors and for those major passenger building components affecting the scale of facilities to be provided. Information for determining passenger building requirements should be obtained from all present or potential users of the facilities including, inter alia, the airlines, general aviation interests, concessionaires, airport management, and special technical committees which may be organized to act as advisors to the airport planners. The criteria should be analysed and agreed upon by all parties involved before being incorporated into the master plan.

Determination of passenger building concepts

9.2.37 The selection of a passenger-building concept must be made jointly with the selection of the aircraft parking system discussed in 7.3.8. Through careful study and analysis, the planner should reduce the possibilities to those few concepts which will be most compatible with the planned airport configuration. These most desirable concepts should then be presented to airport management, airline and general aviation interests, and airport con-cessionaries for their consideration and appraisal. It is essential that co‑ordination with airport interests and users be effected before the final selection of a passenger building concept is made. If this is not done, the plan may well be rejected at the time of its official presentation. The following concepts should be considered in the development of the passenger building plan.

(a) Simple concept. The simple building concept consists of a single common waiting and ticketing area with several exits into a small parking apron. It is adaptable to airports with low airline activity and is also adaptable to general aviation operations whether it is located as a separate entity on a large airline‑served airport or is the operational centre for an airport used exclusively by general aviation. Where the simple building serves airline operations, it will usually have an apron which provides close‑in parking for a few commercial transport aircraft; however, due consideration should be given for jet blast effects against the building when a nose‑in or nose‑out parking configuration is adopted for jet transport aircraft. Where the simple building serves general aviation only, it should be within convenient walking distance of aircraft parking areas and should be adjacent to an aircraft service apron. The simple building concept will normally consist of a single‑level structure where access to aircraft is by walking across the apron. The layout of the simple building should take into account the possibility of linear extension for future expansion.

(b) Linear concept. The linear building concept may be regarded as an extension of the simple building concept, that is, the simple building is repeated in a linear extension to provide additional apron frontage, more gates and more space within the building for passenger processing. Passenger and baggage processing can take place in a central area of a terminal (centralization), but when the terminal becomes larger with increased number of aircraft gate positions the problem of long walking distances arises. This problem can be solved by installation of mechanical devices, such as people movers, or by decentralization of some passenger and baggage processing facilities. Complete decentralization would allow passenger and baggage check‑in and baggage claim at the individual gate and thus afford very short walking distance between curb‑side and aircraft, but construction and operation become costly. The degree of decentralization of processing facilities must be determined after careful study of volume and type of traffic, and of construction and operation costs.

The linear configuration lends itself to the development of adequate close‑in public parking. Ample curb frontage for loading and unloading ground transportation vehicles can be provided with each extension of the linear building. Linear buildings can be expanded with almost no interference to passenger processing or aircraft operations. Expansion may be accomplished by linear extension of the existing structure's air‑side corridor or by developing two or more linear building units connected by an air‑side corridor. The loading of aircraft may be accomplished by nose‑in/push‑out operations with or without passenger loading bridges.

(c) Pier (finger) concept. The finger or pier concept evolved in the 1950s when gate concourses were added to simple central buildings. Since then, very sophisticated forms of the concept have been developed with the addition of hold rooms at gates, passenger loading bridges, and vertical separation of the ticketing check‑in function from the baggage claim function. However, the basic concept has not changed in that the main central passenger building is used to process passengers and baggage (a centralized system, although waiting lounges in most cases are dispersed at each gate position along piers) while the pier provides a means of enclosed access from the central building to aircraft gate. Aircraft are parked at gates along the pier as opposed to the satellite concept where they are parked in a cluster at the end of a concourse (see Figure 7‑3).

Walking distances through pier buildings tend to become long. Curb space must be carefully planned since it depends on the length of the central building and is not related to the total number of gates afforded by piers. This is particularly true of deplaning curbs near centralized baggage claim facilities. Although the pier concept has afforded one of the most economical means of adding gate positions to existing buildings, its use for expansion should be limited. Existing piers should not be extended at the expense of taxiway manoeuvrability nor should new piers be added without providing adequate space for passenger processing in the main building. Most successful additions are effected by extending the main building and then increasing the number of piers.

(d) Satellite concept. The primary feature of the satellite concept is the provision of a single centralized terminal with all ticketing, baggage processing, and ancillary services except waiting lounges, which is connected by concourses to one or more satellite structures. The features of the satellite concept are very similar to those of the pier concept except that aircraft gates are located at the end of a long concourse rather than being spaced at even intervals along it. Satellite gates are served either by common or by separate hold rooms. The concourse can be elevated or located underground, thereby providing space for ground service equipment and aircraft taxi operations between the main building and the satellite. Because the distance from the main building to a satellite is usually well above the average distance to gates found with the pier concept, a people‑mover system or some other mechanical devices are often used to reduce walking distances between terminal and satellite. There is no direct relationship between the number of gates and curb space so that special care should be taken in the planning of enplaning and deplaning roadways serving the central building to prevent curb overloads.

Buildings developed under the satellite concept are difficult to expand without reducing apron frontage or disrupting airport operations. Increases in building capacity are therefore usually effected by the addition of new units rather than expansion of an existing unit.

(e) Other concepts. Other passenger terminal concepts include the transporters concept (also known as the remote aircraft parking concept) and the unit terminal concept. The former involves the vehicular transport of departing and arriving passengers discussed in Chapter 7, and may be combined with other concepts to cater for peak hour demands. The latter is one where the individual compact module units are built around a system of interconnecting access and service roads. The buildings are spaced some distance apart under this concept, with each building providing complete passenger processing and aircraft parking facilities. Consideration of the unit terminal concept is usually feasible only for the larger airports.

9.2.38 Passenger building concepts can also be considered by the level(s) on which passenger arrival, processing and departure takes place. Four typical configurations are as follows (see also Figure 9‑2):

(a) Single‑level road/single‑level terminal. Arrival and departure processing in the terminal is done at same level but is separated horizontally. Passenger boarding to aircraft is by means of stairs.

(b) Single‑level road/double‑level terminal. Arrival and departure processing in the terminal is normally at grade (road level) with departure lounges on a higher level, permitting the use of passenger loading bridges or of transporters with level change capabilities.

(c) Double‑level road/double‑level terminal. Access roads and curb‑side are on different levels, to allow vertical separation of arrival and departure processing in the terminal (usually, the upper level is for departure and the lower level for arrival).

(d) Single‑level roads/double level terminal. This is variation of c), with access road and curb‑side for arrival and departure separated horizontally(laterally) but not vertically.

9.2.39 In the process of developing a terminal concept, planners must also pay attention to the desired degree of centralization or decentralization of the pass- anger and baggage processing facilities (passenger/baggage check‑in, government and security control, baggage sorting and make‑up, departing passenger holding, and baggage claim facilities) within a terminal. A centralized design means that all passenger and baggage processing facilities are centralized for common use by all gate positions at a terminal. (There are variations and except-tons to this, such as the pier concept which is basically centralized yet normally provides passenger holding lounges for exclusive use by each gate position.) In contrast. each of the processing facilities in a decentralized design is dispersed over a number of centres within a terminal. In a completely decentralized concept, all of the

processing facilities are available at each gate position for its exclusive use. Complete decentralization affords advantages such as shorter walking distances, efficient passenger and baggage flow, less chances of mishandled where: baggage, etc., but it may turn out to be uneconomical due to under‑utilization of personnel, equipment and terminal space. Thus the planner should analyse the efficiency of the processing system as a whole, its economy in terms of total requirements of floor area, equipment and personnel, and passenger convenience to achieve optimum degree of centralization or decentralization of the passenger and baggage processing facilities.

Capacity and Demand

9.2.40 In planning, the aim should be to ensure that. capacity satisfies demand within practical economic limits and to provide capability for increased capacity as demand increases with traffic growth. Because of the time required to construct additional facilities, it is normal practice to plan capacity which will be in excess of demand during the initial life of the facility. Statistical forecasts to be used for planning are discussed in Chapter 3.

Movement rate

9.2.41 For planning purposes, the capacity of a passenger building or of its segments is usually expressed in terms of achievable movement rates or, in some cases, of actual populations for a given area. Although there are different criteria used to describe movement rate, the basic concept is one of a number of movements (of passengers, bags or vehicles) per unit of time, the appropriate unit of time depending upon the particular application. In some cases it may be desirable to plan capacity to satisfy an estimated peak demand, but normally a figure somewhat below this will be more realistic due to costs involved and space required. What is important is to match the capacities of different segments in the processing, because inadequate capacity in one operation will restrict the overall flow.

9.2.42 The capacity of the public corridor in passenger buildings is a function of walking speed, the width occupancy expressed as a lateral distance per person (passenger or visitor), and headway distance between persons in the direction of flow. While variations in speed, width and distance are bound to occur, averages can be selected in order to arrive at an average flow of persons per unit of time per unit of width of public corridor, using the following equation:

cc = WS

WO x HD

Where:

CC = corridor capacity (number of persons per minute, per one metre width);

WS = walking speed (normally 75 m per minute);

WO = width occupancy (0.6 ‑ 0.8 m per person);

HD = headway distance between persons (1 ‑ 2 m).

9.2.43 In order to determine the width of a facility such as a pier, the total flow rate per unit of time must be known. Arriving aircraft create a much greater concentration of passengers in relatively short period of time than do departing aircraft, a problem which is compounded when large capacity aircraft use the airport. The size of this surge will depend primarily on the size of aircraft, their arrival schedules, and the number of exits that are used. Therefore, in the planning of space for a pier facility, a flow rate of passengers per hour is not appropriate; a much shorter time period, such as five to ten minutes, may have to be used. The appropriate time period for all parts of the passenger building will not be the same and must be assessed individually depending on function.

Capacity to be provided

9.2.44 Airport authorities may be faced with a number of alternatives in deciding the capacity for which passenger facilities should be planned. The introduction of new very high‑capacity aircraft made it much more important to consider these alternatives, because their passenger capacity may represent a very large proportion of the hourly capacity of many passenger buildings, accentuating the concentration of passenger flow. Four alternatives are outlined below; all four have disadvantages aand the choice should be made by progressive elimination of the least desirable.

First alternative: estimate the building area required for the maximum passenger capacity of the runways (that is, assume that all runways will be used to their maximum capacity and that all aircraft will be the largest type forecast to use the airport). In actual practice, the forecasts of passenger demand and probable aircraft mixture will usually produce a passenger flow rate below this maximum passenger capacity, allowing a downward adjustment of the building area required.

Second alternative: allow delays and congestion caused by surges in the flow to rectify themselves within one hour, as provided for by the standard busy rate which assumes that peaks of up to 20 per cent will occur for short periods. As traffic increases at busy periods, however, and with high capacity aircraft, it may be expected that congestion in any one hour would spread to succeeding hours and it would soon be necessary to restrict the traffic demand. Acceptance of such excessive delays is most undesirable.

Third alternative: spread the traffic evenly throughout the hour by specifying a capacity for a shorter period, for example 15 minutes. This would restrict aircraft scheduling so that the passenger flow is evened out over the hour. This is practised by some airport authorities and has the advantages of spreading the airport's utilization and permitting more efficient and economic use of facilities and staff. It may not be favoured by some aircraft operators because it limits the use of any preferred departure and arrival times. However, every airport and passenger building has a finite capacity which, when reached, requires schedules to be spread. The disadvantage of this procedure is that it cannot be applied to arrivals traffic. Conditions en‑route, such as winds and delays at other airports, can introduce a considerable element of irregularity in arrival times and small variations can accentuate surges and have a large impact on the passenger flow.

Fourth alternative: plan the passenger facilities on the flow rate indicated by the size, duration and frequency of the passenger surges. This would produce an hourly capacity significantly higher than the capacity necessary for an even distribution of traffic throughout the hour. The cost of providing capacity for the passenger surges within the hour should be considered and the capacity to be provided should be determined by the over‑all cost benefit analyses. If provision of passenger capacity for the forecast flow conditions cannot be economically justified, e.g. because of the infrequency of occurrence or very high cost, it may be necessary to combine some degree of limitation of aircraft operators' schedules with some passenger congestion of a limited duration.

Processing rates

9.2.45 The appropriate measurement of capacity may not be the same for all individual facilities. The rate at which passengers flow to a facility is determined by the rate at which they flow through the previous part of the route. For example, the rate at which passengers leave an aircraft is determined largely by the number and size of the aircraft doors used. The rate at which they flow into the passenger building depends upon the method used to transport them to the building. Passengers flowing through a pier will spread out according to their walking speeds and will arrive in a stream at the first control point, i.e. port health or immigration for international passengers and baggage reclaim for domestic passengers. Passengers conveyed to the passenger building in a vehicle, either from the aircraft or population centre, will arrive at the frontier controls or check‑in position in-groups.

9.2.46 The average time required to process one passenger at any specific facility depends upon the nature of the procedures; these vary, both in content and method, between States. The processing time for each facility and control on the flow routes can be determined by observation. It is not possible to define standard processing times for all airports, although the times achieved at other airports are often a good guide to the flow rate which can be achieved. For example, at some airports immigration officials undertake health document inspection or preliminary customs control. At others each of the controls is carried out by different officials at separate locations. Sometimes customs controls are established for clearance of passengers and baggage separately. At others both are cleared at the same point. Similarly, some aircraft operators check in passengers and their baggage at one point, others check in baggage at one point and passengers at another. These are only examples of the wide differences in existing passenger control procedures and a comparison of processing times is invalid without analysis of the methods and procedures used.

9.2.47 The nature of the control also determines the period of delay or degree of congestion, which is acceptable at that point for the efficient operation of the passenger building. The standard busy rate, being less than the peak rate, assumes that it is exceeded for a small proportion of the time, which can lead to some short‑term delays or congestion. For many facilities, such delays or congestion constitute only temporary reductions in convenience, which is reasonable and acceptable in over‑all economic terms. However, in some parts of the flow route such delays could lead to major and intolerable inconvenience. These are the points where certain procedures have to be completed by a specific time to allow other procedures to be undertaken. For example, check‑in usually has to be completed by a specific period before flight departure time to permit aircraft operators to complete aircraft documentation and load balance, etc. Thus, if check‑in desk capacity is computed at the standard busy rate, the temporary delay or congestion which may arise when that rate is exceeded could prevent some passengers from checking in by the latest specified time and either delay the aircraft or cause the passengers to miss their flights.

9.2.48 Each procedural control on the flow routes should, therefore, be analysed to determine the acceptable delay factor applicable to it. The capacity required for each facility is thus determined by the rate of flow to it, the average passenger processing time and the acceptable delay factor.

9.3 PASSENGER BUILDING CONNEXION

WITH ACCESS SYSTEM

Land Side Entrances and Exits

and Passenger Building Curb

9.3.1 Passenger building entrances, exits and curb area are important parts of the total airport system. The principal components are:

(a) Vehicular traffic lanes, through lanes, bypass lanes, curb/manoeuvring lanes;

(b) Sidewalk platform;

(c) signs, for both direction and identification;

(d) curb side baggage check‑in points, located on the sidewalk platform;

(e) building openings, entrances and exits;

(f) pedestrian roadway crossings.

The necessary curb lengths and the vehicular traffic lanes will greatly influence the passenger building configuration. The vehicular curb areas at the passenger building are required for the efficient off‑loading of departing passengers and their baggage, and for the efficient on-loading of arriving passengers and their baggage.

Signs

9.3.2 At this initial point of connexion of the passenger with the passenger building, directional and identification are most necessary to facilitate on orderly flow of passengers to their desired locations. The Council of ECAA recognized this need when they decided that a set of uniform signs should be developed for use at international airports throughout the world. This action was taken to facilitate air travellers in locating various facilities and services such as telephones, check‑in counters, baggage reclaim areas, post offices, toilets and banks. The ECAA publication International Signs to Provide Guidance to Persons at Airports contains such a set of signs.

Curb‑side layout

9.3.3 The shape of ground vehicles and the numbers to be accommodated make the provision of sufficient space of a suitable shape for vehicle unloading one of the most difficult elements of passenger building planning. For the shortest flow route the unloading points should be as close as possible to the first processing positions in the passenger building. For straight and direct flows it should be possible to enter the building directly from the unloading points at any point along its frontage. The unloading area should be on the same level as the passenger departure floor and its depth should be the minimum possible consistent with other requirements. The capacity of the unloading area can be increased by introducing a two‑level road system. If it is necessary to consider the alternative merits of increased depth or more levels, the choice should depend on the horizontal and vertical length of the passenger route.

9.3.4 The passenger building entrances and exits, with their signs, can be considered points for potential vehicular traffic accumulation. The planner needs to establish the relationship between the possible number and location of terminal openings, the terminal functions with which they connect, and the total required curb length.

9.3.5 Ticket lobby length is usually determined by the length of the ticket counter. The number and spacing of building openings are functions of the layout of the ticket lobby. The effective terminal curb length available relates directly to the arrangement of the building openings. Similarly, the baggage reclaim lobby dimensions, predominantly the reclaim device arrangement, will determine the number and spacing of building openings and the effective passenger building frontage available. Building concepts providing curb areas greatly in excess of the building length or providing an excess of building entrances and exits with little direct relationship to either ticket counter or baggage reclaim should be analysed for their economics, efficiency, and passenger convenience.

9.3.6 The curb‑side baggage check‑in system was once considered to be ideal for departing passengers as they could drop their baggage at a designated area of the enplaning curb frontage for an airline agency to check‑in, thus becoming free of their baggage prior to checking in for their seats. However, for security reasons this system is no longer considered practical for international flights. In this regard it is worth noting that ECAA ECAR 17 calls for a State to establish measures to ensure that operators providing service to or from that State do not place or keep the baggage of passengers who have registered, but who have not reported for embarkation, on board the aircraft, without subjecting it to security control.

Capacity and curb space utilization

9.3.7 The curb length required is affected by the numbers, average size and characteristics of vehicles. The use of cars by passengers may be influenced by any public transport systems, which are provided particularly an exclusive town centre/airport system. The distribution of passengers by travel modes and the numbers and types of vehicles to be accommodated can be obtained from the operational and economic forecasts. The minimum time necessary to unload passengers and baggage depends upon the average number of passengers per vehicle and the average number of pieces of baggage per passenger. Occupancy time should be limited to ensure that there is always space to unload passengers and baggage without congestion or delay. This limitation will depend upon the rate of arrival of vehicles and the total number of spaces available ‑ many airport authorities have found that a waiting period of three minutes for cars is sufficient for unloading and is consistent with provision of a number of car spaces which is economically reasonable and compatible with the passenger flow principles.

9.3.8 An analysis of curb space utilization by the various types of vehicles should be performed. It is assumed that curb areas for buses, limousines and courtesy cars will be designated areas and, as a consequence, can be completely controlled. Similarly, queue lines for taxis will be designated and controlled. Pick‑up of passengers by taxis at the deplaning road sections can be controlled by dispatching from a designated queue line.

9.3.9 The loading and unloading of passengers by private vehicles and unloading by taxis cannot be tightly controlled. Orderly performance therefore depends on the arrangement and organization of the curb lanes, building openings and signs.

9.3.10 Vehicular curb manoeuvring lanes are provided for the purpose of loading and unloading passengers with bags. The dimensions in length and width need to be such that traffic volumes generated for the design year during peak periods will be processed without undue delays. The curb manoeuvring lane width should be approximately 1.6 of a regular traffic lane, to permit manoeuvring to take place without interfering with the flow of traffic.

9.3.11 The curb manoeuvring lane should be used only for loading and unloading, and not as a waiting area for vehicles. Each vehicle should occupy a curb space only for the time it takes to load or unload passengers and baggage, and to manoeuvre into and out of the space. This total time is identified as the "dwell time/vehicle." Strict policing, as done at many high‑volume airports to minimize dwell time, will promote an efficient traffic flow.

9.3.12 The number of building entrances and exits signs, and sign programme both for public information and airline identification should be arranged in such a manner that the effective curb length thus formed will closely approximate the required curb length.

9.3.13 The required curb length can be calculated as follows:

(a) Determine design hour passengers enplaning and deplaning. Identify the design period for deplaning passengers within the peak‑hour ‑ peak 10 or 20 minutes (a 20‑minute peak can be equivalent to 50 per cent of the peak‑hour traffic).

(b) Determine the percentage of transfer passengers of the total, and deduct from the total design hour requirement to find the number of passengers entering the airport using the road system.

(c) Determine the modal preference by vehicular type.

(d) Determine the percentage of passengers that go directly to the parking facility and do not use the curb system.

(e) Determine the visitor ratio of passengers to visitors, and apply to the percentage of passengers using private vehicles.

(f) Determine occupants per vehicle and the average curb dwell time for that type of vehicle.

Relationship of curb to passenger building layout

9.3.14 The total calculated curb lengths need to be related to actual terminal layouts for both enplaning and deplaning. The total length of the facade of the ticket lobby and the baggage claim area must be arranged in relationship to the required curb lengths.

9.4 PASSENGER PROCESSING

Cheek‑in Concourse

9.4.1 The area between the passenger building entrance and the check‑in positions is the check‑in concourse (note that facilities for check‑in may also be provided at the aircraft gates). The primary flow is that of passengers holding flight tickets and proceeding directly to check‑in; separation of functions is most important in this area to ensure that this primary flow is not compromised (see Figure 9‑3).

9.4.2 The airline ticket counter is the first objective for originating passengers once they have entered the passenger building. To ensure that the passenger reaches this first objective with a minimum of confusion, the check‑in concourse should be designed so that counters and individual airline or flight locations are clearly visible immediately upon entering the passenger building. Circulation patterns should allow the option of bypassing counters with a minimum of interference. Provision for seating in this area of the building should be minimal to avoid congestion as well as to facilitate exposure to concessions and other services.

9.4.3 Until passengers have checked in, they have no assurance of being able to travel and cannot proceed through any subsequent controls. Passenger and baggage check‑in has to be completed some time before flight departure to provide sufficient time for subsequent procedures such as aircraft operators' documentation and aircraft load computation, loading baggage into the aircraft, clearing passengers through government controls where required and boarding of the aircraft by passengers.

Figure 9‑3. Passenger check‑in flow

Aircraft operators' documentation and baggage handling are usually the limiting factors which determine the time by which checking in must be completed.

9.4.4 The space between the land side entrances and cheek‑in positions should be sufficient to provide free access to check‑in and other facilities. Check‑in concourse sizing is a function of total length of airline ticket counter frontage, queuing at counters, and allowance for lateral circulation without undue congestion. For small‑ and medium‑sized airports, a depth of approximately 10 m should be adequate for the check‑in concourse. However, airports having a high visitor/passenger ratio may require additional depth.

9.4.5 Although check‑in is the primary activity in this area, a number of allied functional facilities, i.e. aircraft operators' ticket sales, stand‑by passenger registration, aircraft operators' information and currency exchange facilities may also have to be accommodated.

Aircraft operators' ticket sales, stand‑by registration and information

9.4.6 Passengers purchasing tickets or making standby registrations must do so before they can check in. Similarly, passengers may require information from aircraft operators before purchasing tickets or making reservations. To ensure unobstructed flow to the check‑in positions these facilities should be located clear of the primary flow streams.

Currency exchange

9.4.7 Passengers making payments for ticket purchase or airport tax may need to cash cheques or change currency and a bank or currency exchange facility is, therefore, required in the check‑in concourse. In choosing the location, care should be taken to ensure that passengers using this facility do not interfere with the free flow of passengers through the building.

Airport tax or passenger service charge

9.4.8 Where airport taxes or service charges are imposed on departing passengers, methods should be developed whereby passengers may pay them when purchasing tickets. When this cannot be done, arrangements should be made for payment of these charges in the vicinity of check‑in counters. The fullest advance warning should be given to ensure that passengers are aware of any payment to be made before they arrive at the point of collection or pass the currency exchange.

Capacity

9.4.9 The number of check‑in positions required is a function of the time required to process one passenger and the rate of flow to the check‑in positions. Average check‑in process times vary according to the route and category of traffic and should be determined in consultation with aircraft operators. Based on the process time, a sustainable check‑in rate can be defined and the capacity for each position required can be defined. Surges within the hour occur on the same basis as for the land side vehicle unloading positions and the unit period for rate of flow measurement should similarly be obtained by research measurement. It is necessary to ensure that passengers arriving just before the designated final check‑in time can be processed without delay.

9.4.10 The type and number of counter positions required are usually determined by the airport authority in consultation with each airline or handling agency according to its staffing criteria and company standards for processing passengers and baggage. Individual airport variables that influence the number of positions include one or more of the following:

(a) Design hour emplacements. These are usually derived from projections of peak hour/average day of peak month emplacements plus consideration of the number of gate positions, the seating capacity of aircraft that those gate positions can accommodate, and boarding load factors considered representative for the airport.

(b) Contact ratio. This ratio is usually projected from historical data and shows the relationship between the number of passengers who contact counter agents and the total number of emplacements or originating passengers. Separate contact ratios can be determined for each type of counter position: ticketing, baggage check‑in, multipurpose, information, and future ticketing.

(c) Passenger arrival distribution patterns. This is the rate at which enplaning passengers arrive at check‑in counters for processing, sometimes presented in tables showing the percentage of passengers arriving in 5‑ or 10‑minute increments during a period up to 120 or 150 minutes prior to departure. Two different patterns may be applicable at some airports where the passenger arrivals for early morning flights occur during a shorter time span than do passenger arrivals during other times of the day. Figure 9‑4, which

Line A ‑ Percentage distribution of passengers arriving for flights departing between 1000 and 0400.

Line B ‑ Percentage distribution of passengers arriving for flights departing between 0405 and 0955.

Figure 9‑4. Passenger arrival distribution

Illustrates these points, can be derived for individual airports by time coding passenger tickets at contact with the agent and then relating this time to the scheduled departure time of the passenger's flight.

(d) Average process time for each type of counter activity.

(e) Service goals of an individual airline for specific types of counter positions. These are generally expressed as the percentage of passenger contacts who will wait for service "x" minutes or less.

The combination of emplacements, contract ratios and arrival patterns describes the passenger flow to a given type of counter. Passenger flow, process time and airlines' service goals are used to determine the number of agent positions required.

9.4.11 Late check‑in can be effected at the aircraft gate in circumstances where passengers would otherwise miss their flights. This places on passengers the burden of transporting their baggage to the gate, but the system is permissive and it is for the passengers to decide whether to accept the burden or miss the flight. This arrangement should, however, only be used to supplement the provision of appropriate check‑in facilities in the check‑in concourse. If the terminal is designed following a completely decentralized concept (gate check‑in concept), late check‑in can be easily accommodated. However, consideration shall be given to the economic aspect since personnel and facilities tend to be underused when decentralized.

9.4.12 Further considerations influencing check‑in capacity are the number of aircraft operators, their shares of the traffic and frequency of operation, the allocation of check‑in positions and operating system adopted. The minimum facilities will be required when all are used homogeneously and any passenger can check‑in at any position for any flight. Utilization of the facilities, and hence the total capacity required, will depend on whether particular positions are designated for specific purposes (for example, specific check‑in positions for domestic as opposed to international services, or separate positions for each operator or flight). The check‑in capacity to be provided is a matter for both aircraft operators' and airport authorities' judgement.

9.4.13 Use of the land side vehicle unloading positions and entrances to the passenger building has also to be related to any allocation of check‑in positions for specific purposes. Homogeneous use of all check‑in positions provides the greatest passenger convenience and ensures highest utilization of land side vehicle unloading positions and check‑in facilities and, therefore, requires minimum provision of these facilities and building space. The more that facilities are allocated to specific uses the more difficult it becomes to provide balanced capacity over all parts of each flow stream, with passenger routes becoming less straight and cross‑flows developing along the length of the building. The optimum balance is often difficult to define but it will be achieved by close adherence to the flow principles and cost‑benefit assessment.

Check‑in systems

9.4.14 The check‑in system used by airlines or handling agencies can exert a major influence on planning. The conventional check‑in system of manual ticket control and baggage weighing and labelling is still in use, but only at small airports. Many operators find it economically justifiable to install computer check‑in systems, and already computerized departure control systems with inputs from check‑in desks at airports and elsewhere are being widely used. Airport planners should be aware of common use terminal equipment (CUTE) which is a generic airline industry term for a facility which allows individual airlines to access their host computer(s), and to share passenger terminal handling facilities. Full details in respect of CUTE systems are contained in IATA Recommended Practice 1797 which is available from Senior Manager, Passenger Services, IATA, 2000 Peel Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3A 2R4. A concurrent development is the elimination of baggage weighing and thus the need for scales. This already applies on many domestic routes, where the passenger baggage entitlement is fixed as a specified number of pieces of defined size.

9.4.15 These new operational systems can affect passenger-building planning by imposing different space requirements for the check‑in positions. They may also reduce the passenger service time so that the capacity (flow rate) of the check‑in positions would be very considerably increased. The capacity of any particular section of the passenger flow routes should be matched by a corresponding capacity in the other sections. Failure to do so merely causes congestion and consequent delay in the subsequent lower‑capacity sections of the route, or under-utilization of the high‑capacity section, because passengers cannot flow to it fast enough.

9.4.16 Changes in check‑in systems can also affect their utilization and the systems of allocation. The extent to which new high capacity cheek‑in systems can, or need to be adopted, will vary among aircraft operators and the routes and types of traffic, which an airport serves. The appropriate balance between numbers for each type of system and the appropriate system of allocation should be determined by the airport authority in consultation with operators, in the light of local circumstances.

Check‑in counters

9.4.17 The passenger terminal layout is largely influenced by the check‑in concept and the ticket counter configuration employed by airlines and handling agencies. Consequently, it is essential that airlines and handling agencies are consulted at an early stage of the planning.

9.4.18 The check‑in system may be divided into the following three concepts:

(a) Centralized check‑in concept. Passengers and baggage are processed at check‑in counters located in a common central area, usually the departure concourse of the terminal. The counters may be of different configurations and may be divided into sections specially designated for individual airlines (airline base) or flights (flight base) or alternatively passengers may be free to check‑in at any counter positions (common base).

(b) Split check‑in concept. The check‑in function is split between two or more locations within the terminal complex, e.g. baggage may be accepted at check‑in counters on the lower level and seat assignment takes place at the waiting lounge on the upper level of the terminal.

(c) Gate check‑in concept. Gate check‑in is normally directly related to the decentralized passenger terminal concept. By this system passengers and baggage are processed at check‑in counters located very close to an aircraft gate position (or a few positions in case of semi‑decentralized passenger terminal concept) and its waiting lounge. This concept can afford advantages such as short distances, simple check‑in handling for both passengers and baggage, etc. However, economic aspects should be well taken into consideration, since the facilities and personnel tend to be under utilized during off‑peak hours.

9.4.19 The check‑in counters, on the other hand, ma be divided into three types of configuration:

(a) Linear counter. This is the most frequently used ticket counter configuration. At low‑volume airports multipurpose positions are common where an agent can perform any ticket transaction, check in baggage, and provide such other service as an airline may deem appropriate to its operation. Multipurpose positions reduce the number of servicing stops for some passengers and afford flexibility in staffing, especially during non‑peak periods.

During peak periods, some airlines utilize multipurpose positions for‑a single function to expedite processing of passengers who need only one type of service (e.g. ticketing, baggage check‑in, ticketing for future flights, etc.). At high‑volume airports, single function positions become more common and airline servicing procedures may justify some special purpose positions in addition to those single function positions. Special‑purpose positions provide general information and passenger assistance, including paging service, gate assignments, information regarding delayed or cancelled flights and weather. Some of these services may also be required in departure lounges.

(b) Flow‑through counters. This concept is in use at some airports, although experience indicates that future applications may be limited to relatively few airports. This concept appears to be most successful when specialized for baggage check‑in, where passengers queue along the baggage input, complete their transactions with the agent, and walk through to a lobby or circulation area beyond. The principal advantages are reducing cross‑circulation and increasing baggage take‑away capability, by providing one input for one or two positions at linear counters. This increased capability can be beneficial at high‑volume stations having a relatively high percentage of "baggage‑only" transactions.

One difference between linear and flow‑through counters is the additional floor space required for the latter ‑ usually 4.6 to 6.5 square metres more for each bag check‑in position, including space for queuing. Another characteristic is that out‑bound baggage systems become more complicated with flow‑through counters because of the greater number of individual inputs and the difficulty of merging multiple inputs into a single transport conveyor or sorting device, thereby increasing investment and maintenance costs for baggage systems.

The island counter. This concept combines some features of both the flow‑through and linear arrangements. The agent positions form a "U" around a single conveyor belt (or pair of belts), providing inter changeability between multipurpose or specialized functions.

Layout

9.4.20 Check‑in facilities should be located so as to enable passengers to check in at the earliest possible moment, thus reducing the effect of delays at earlier stages of the flow route and permitting the latest possible arrival at the airport before flight departure. This also enables passengers to be relieved of their baggage at the earliest opportunity.

9.4.21 Check‑in positions should be immediately obvious on entering the building. Passengers flow to the check‑in positions in a number of parallel streams formed by the layout of the land side vehicle unloading positions, and the passenger building land side entrances. The layout of the cheek‑in facilities is influenced by two considerations ‑ preservation of the straightness of the parallel flows across the check‑in concourse through to the air side, and minimum distance to the air side. Examples of check-in layouts are shown in Figures 9‑5, 9‑6 and 9‑7. For straight, direct flows passengers should pass between the check‑in positions as through a comb, as depicted in Figures 9‑5 and 9‑7; long continuous lines of check‑in positions at right angles to the flow can conflict with the flow principles.

9.4.22 The check‑in positions should be grouped into units of sufficient size to maintain acceptable staff costs and utilization compatible with efficient passenger flow. Too many positions in each group would compromise the flow principles to an unacceptable extent, and the flow rate would be reduced by congestion and confusion. The larger the number of positions the more the passenger flow is distorted.

Offices

9.4.23 Aircraft operators often require staff offices at the check‑in positions. These should be arranged to ensure that visual continuity is preserved from the check‑in concourse through and beyond the check‑in positions. Passengers are drawn on through the building when they can see self‑evident and continuous flow routes ahead of them. The more that offices are sited in the flow routes the more difficult it becomes to provide visual continuity and the longer the routes become because of the space required for the offices. Therefore, only the minimum offices which are essential for the operation of check‑in facilities should be provided in this area. They should form the rear of each of the groups of check‑in positions with the passenger streams passing between them.

Flight information

9.4.24 Passengers have to be informed when their aircraft is ready for boarding and when delays occur. This has generally been done by loud speaker announcements, but at busy airports such arrangements can cause problems: due to the constant flow of announcements passengers tend to miss those applying to their particular flight and the high ambient noise level in buildings containing a lot of people necessitates a high volume for the loudspeaker announcements which can cause severe discomfort for staff working in the building.

9.4.25 Visual presentation of flight information should, therefore, be considered. Flight information display systems should be considered at the same time as the check‑in concourse and waiting areas are being planned. They should be located so that flight information is visible from all principal parts of these areas, and also to ensure that they do not create visual obstruction or cause passengers to obstruct the primary flow routes. In large buildings, the size of indicators necessary for viewing from all parts of the check‑in and waiting areas may be incompatible with these considerations and more than one indicator at each location may be necessary (refer to the ECAA publication Dynamic Flight‑related Public Information Displays).

Figure 9-7 Passenger check-in position

9.5 BAGGAGE PROCESSING

Baggage Processing Concept

9.5.1 For those parts of the passenger flow routes where baggage accompanies passengers, the passenger flow principles also apply to baggage. The term "baggage flow" refers to those parts of the system, which are specifically for baggage handling when it is separated from passengers. General planning principles apply to baggage systems planning, while passenger considerations have to be noted at those points where the passenger and baggage flows come together. Factors to be taken into account include:

(a) baggage and passenger flow should be matched in speed and capacity;

(b) flow routes should not conflict with passenger or vehicular flows;

(c) flow routes should be accessible so that baggage can be recovered at various stages;

(d) the flow system should involve a minimum number of individual handling operations, e.g. transfers between different types of vehicles, etc., and the flow should be steady and uninterrupted;

(e)passengers should have an opportunity to check their baggage at the earliest possible point;

(f) baggage claim systems should provide continuous presentation to passengers and permit them to recover their baggage personally;

(g) flow routes may be influenced by the type of handling system adopted, e.g. manually or mechanically propelled trucks, conveyor belts, etc.; and

(h) palletized systems should be compatible with aircraft baggage holds and loading systems.

9.2.5 Although it is not normally necessary, security checks of baggage may be required for specific flights or at certain locations; the type of checks may vary, depending upon the circumstances surrounding the particular threat and the method for inspection adopted. Security checks of baggage should be performed prior to flight check‑in. Regardless of the system adopted, the baggage flow should be designed so that all baggage boarding an aircraft, including transfer baggage, is subject to the same inspection.

9.5.3 Figure 9‑8 illustrates passenger and baggage flow systems which include the whole range of possible procedures which may require consideration.

9.5.4 Departures customs inspection is contrary to the International Standards and Recommended Practices of ECAA ECAR 9 ‑ Facilitation. States still retaining this control should conduct it prior to flight check‑in.

9.5.5 Pre‑clearance of baggage under bilateral agreements between States which provide for arrivals inspections to be carried out at the airport of departure is another possibility which should be taken into consideration in the early planning stage.

Figure 9-8 Diagram of passengers/ baggage flow

Baggage Cheek‑in Remote from the Airport

9.5.6 Maximum convenience is achieved if passengers can be relieved of their baggage at the earliest possible stage of their journey. In the past some airports provided baggage check‑in facilities at off‑airport buildings such as specially arranged terminals in the city. For security reasons, however, this system is no longer recommended since it would create passenger/baggage-matching problems at the airport prior to the passengers boarding the aircraft.

Departures Baggage Flow

9.5.7 Baggage facilities should be analysed as a flow plan and all systems should have maximum flexibility. Similarly, all baggage areas should be planned to provide the maximum clear, unobstructed space to facilitate adaptation to new systems and procedures.

9.5.8 After being checked in, baggage must be sorted into flight groups, then further sorted into sub‑groups (such as destination airports, transfer baggage, and/or the particular aircraft holds in which it is to be carried). After sorting it may have to be stored for a period prior to delivery to aircraft. Where such controls exist, baggage may have to be submitted to customs inspection. The baggage system is, therefore, required to provide facilities for each of these functions. Except for the smallest airports this is best achieved by baggage handling being done on a separate floor below the passenger departure floor.

Systems

9.5.9 The choice of baggage handling systems will depend upon the size and nature of the traffic and local considerations such as the cost and availability of manual labour and the skills of local labour for the operation and maintenance of mechanical equipment. The rate of traffic movement and quantity of baggage can quickly exceed the capacity of manual systems and mechanical and/or automatic sorting systems are often required. These may have the advantage of requiring less space than manual systems.

9.5.10 The sorting system can be fundamentally influenced by the check‑in system and some systems completely integrate the two procedures. Even where the two systems are functionally separate the allocation of check‑in positions can determine the form of the baggage sorting system. Thus the management policy to be adopted for check‑in should be defined at the earliest stage and in conjunction with consideration of the baggage system. Shared baggage sorting systems which serve all check‑in positions and all aircraft operators have considerable cost and space advantages and are compatible with aircraft operators' individual loading and transport of baggage to aircraft.

Security baggage inspection

9.5. 11 The technique for security baggage inspection are extremely varied, and include hand inspection or inspection by detection devices. Usually inspection of checked baggage for security purposes will only be implemented when a potentially dangerous situation is believed to exist. All baggage will, therefore, not be required to be subject to inspection. It is important, however, when security measures are being invoked for a particular flight, that all baggage and cargo, mail, etc., intended for that flight be subject to the same checks. See Chapter 14 for additional information.

9.5.12 The baggage flow system should be designed so that persons not connected with processing of baggage or operation of the airport will be denied access to the baggage, Under certain circumstances, however, it may be necessary for passengers personally to identify, open and search their own baggage prior to loading, in order to ensure that nothing has been placed surreptitiously in the baggage. Facility for this may need to be included in the design of the airport.

Layout

9.5.13 No single layout offers such overwhelming advantages that it can be recommended for use for all baggage areas. The main factors to be considered are the handling time, which is usually a direct function of the distance which the baggage has to travel, and the provision of sufficient positions at the air side of the building for the delivery of baggage to aircraft.

9.5.14 Apron vehicles provide the cheapest and most flexible system for the transport of baggage between passenger buildings and aircraft. The size and shal5e of the vehicle loading positions in the baggage area depends upon the type of vehicles, e.g. conventional road vehicles or special trolleys formed into trains and towed by prime movers.

9.5.15 Most large aircraft are equipped for the carriage of baggage in containers, which are loaded and emptied in the passenger building. This system is likely to be increasingly adopted and may influence the type of apron vehicles used. The types of containers, however, vary between aircraft and aircraft operators have differing methods of handling them; baggage storage and loading areas should therefore provide for loading of a variety of container types as well as uncontainerized baggage. Adjacent space may also be necessary for storage of a number of containers according to aircraft operators' requirements.

Departure customs baggage inspection

9.5.16 If, in spite of the provisions of ECAR 9, departure customs baggage inspection facility is still required, the appropriate position is indicated on Figure 9‑1. Customs baggage control should be located to avoid the need for repeated handling of baggage by aircraft operators and the consequent longer ground handling times and higher costs.

9.5.17 Government regulations may require inspection of registered baggage, i.e. baggage checked in for carriage in the aircraft hold and/or passengers' hand baggage. Hand baggage moves with the passengers and is, therefore, available for inspection at any point (see 9.7). But registered baggage is given up at check‑in and dispatched to the air side for loading. Government regulations may require alternative procedures, depending on whether checks are random or continuous and the method by which they are imposed.

9.5.18 If all baggage is subject to inspection, the control positions should be sited at the point where the baggage and passenger flow routes separate ‑ i.e. immediately before check‑in. If random or selective checks of individual passengers' baggage are required, including pre‑clearance under bilateral arrangements which provide or arrivals customs baggage inspection to be carried out at the foreign airport of departure, the control should be similarly sited. If customs inspection is carried out at check‑in, the service time is considerably increased and the flow through the check‑in facilities correspondingly reduced, making additional check‑in facilities necessary. Because passenger convenience and flow speeds would be compromised by the longer flow routes arising, the functions should be separated.

Customs accommodation

9.5.19 In association with the baggage inspection control, customs may require offices for their administrative procedures, as well as for interview or search rooms for passengers found in contravention of regulations. The same considerations apply to the sitting and form of these offices as to the airline check‑in offices described previously. Office accommodation for customs in this area should be restricted to the absolute minimum necessary for application of baggage inspection; supporting administrative offices, rest rooms, etc., should be provided elsewhere in the building.

Baggage Claim

(see Figure 9‑9)

9.5.20 A variety of mechanical and semi‑automatic baggage claim systems are available and in use throughout the world. The main consideration in choosing a manual or mechanical claim system should be to reduce the amount of ‑milling‑ (random movement) of passengers.

9.5.21 Where the numbers of baggage or passengers in the claim area at any one time are fairly small, simple manual systems which rely on passengers moving to their bags are satisfactory. However, this can lead to confusion when too many passengers claim their baggage simultaneously. As passenger flow rates and aircraft sizes increase, baggage claim systems should be arranged to eliminate milling; this can only be achieved by having passengers remain in the principal flow streams and presenting their baggage to them, on equipment arranged in a “comb” across the line of the flow. For high flow rates, reduction in milling can be realized by presenting baggage on a moving display, such as a revolving turntable or belt, which passes in front of the passengers.

9.5.22 Space should be provided, behind the frontier controls and in front of the baggage claim, in which passengers can wait if baggage delivery from aircraft is delayed. Facilities should also be provided in the claim area for the storage of baggage belonging to passengers who are delayed by health or passport controls. Misrouted or unclaimed baggage should be stored in facilities provided adjacent to the passenger processing areas, rather than in the claim area.

Figure 9‑10. Customs inspection

Customs Inspection

(see Figure 9‑10)

9.5.23 At international airports, passengers flow from baggage claim to customs baggage inspection. Various inspection systems are possible, with the choice usually being dictated by the statutory regulations to be enforced. As for all passenger control, the customs inspection should be arranged as a "comb." Flow streams through the control should be arranged so that passengers with goods to declare do not hold up passengers without dutiable goods to declare. ECAR 9 recommends that States introduce, at their major international airports, in close co‑operation with the airport operators and other agencies concerned, a dual‑channel system for the clearance inwards of passengers and their baggage. The system shall allow the passengers to choose between two types of channels:

(a) one channel (green) for passengers having with them no goods or only goods which can be admitted free of import duties and taxes and which are not subject to import prohibitions or restrictions; and

(b) the other channel (red) for other passengers.

It is possible to apply random or selective checks to these streams as may be required without interrupting the normal fast, unimpeded flow. The streams in the second category should flow past customs officers in the normal way.

9.5.24 Once "red" and "green" channels are adopted, the number of streams can easily be altered in accordance with the specific need at the time, as long as the total number of streams has been properly determined based on local conditions. ‑

Arrivals Baggage Flow

9.5.25 The considerations to be taken into account in respect of the containers and vehicles onto which baggage is loaded and transported between aircraft and passenger building are the same as described in the departures section in 9.5.7 through 9.5.15. After arrival at the passenger building, baggage has to be unloaded from vehicles and containers and delivered to the baggage claim system or transferred to the departures area in the case of transit and transfer passengers. Sufficient space and height for easy manoeuvring of vehicles is required and also for storage and removal of empty containers. Sufficient space is also required adjacent to each baggage delivery facility to enable simultaneous use of several or all such facilities. Convenient connexion with outwards baggage sorting area and wide storage areas for either empty containers or baggage should be provided. A one‑way vehicle flow is desirable to provide unobstructed access for vehicles arriving from aircraft. Delays in baggage handling often occur at this point and delivery of baggage to the claim area at a rate comparable with the passenger flow is one of the most important elements of airport operation.

Transfer baggage

9.5.26 Passengers transferring between international flights should not have to claim their baggage until they reach their final destination. The baggage of all such passengers should be identified in the baggage vehicle unloading area and transferred directly to the departures baggage sorting area for integration with all other departures baggage. The route and system of transfer should be as direct and fast as possible to enable baggage to connect between flights with the least possible delay. Passengers transferring from international to domestic flights are usually subject to customs inspection and their baggage is, therefore, treated as normal arrivals baggage and delivered to the baggage claim area. This also applies to transit passengers on flights changing category.

9.6 PASSENGER WAITING

9.6.1 For certain passenger processing systems, waiting areas at or close to the aircraft gates may be required; the form and use of such areas depend on the systems used for connecting the passenger building to aircraft. Where waiting areas are provided at forward positions they may affect the form and use of the main waiting area in the passenger building. The waiting area can be the appropriate location for certain passenger amenities. It is, however, of the utmost importance to separate functions and preserve clear, unobstructed routes for the primary flows.

Capacity

9.6.2 The capacity of the waiting area should be defined by the number of passengers to be accommodated at any one time. The average time spent in the area is in part a reflection of the passenger processing system; a survey can be used to determine the proportion of the total passenger flow which proceeds almost immediately to the aircraft and the average time which the remainder of passengers spend in the area. The space required will vary according to the levels of comfort considered appropriate, and should take into account the average time spent in the area, climate and local custom.

9.6.3 The capacity required is a function of the passenger rate of flow, the average period spent in the waiting area and the functions carried on there. The capacity should be sufficient to absorb the difference in flow rates between check‑in and aircraft boarding. The flow rate out of the waiting area is determined by aircraft apron movement rates and aircraft operators' procedures. The flow into the area may reflect influences from land side ground transport systems. Each should be separately assessed where either of these influences is dominant.

Layout

9.6.4 To maintain the straightest possible flow routes, the waiting area should be of the same general length as the departures concourse. Entrances should be provided for each main flow stream (where frontier controls are applied see also 9.7). For passengers proceeding directly to their aircraft, straight, clear routes, unobstructed by any other flows or functions, should lead directly from the entrance to the air side exits.

9.6.5 Passengers not proceeding immediately to board their aircraft will pass to the waiting areas, which should normally be sited to the side, and clear of, the direct flow to aircraft. The concept of flow planning still applies even for the time during which passengers are waiting; the general planning principle should be to site waiting areas and amenities so as to keep passengers with the longest waiting periods clear of the exit routes to the gate. Passenger circulation within the waiting area, i.e. to and from seating, amenities, ‑toilets, etc., is random and adequate space is required.

9.6.6 Passengers often wish to board their aircraft as soon as it is possible to do so; this leads to surges in the flow out of the waiting areas. When flights have been delayed and complete passenger loads are waiting, surges in the flow can be large and will be accentuated with the introduction of very high capacity aircraft. Thus routes to the exits are required which will ensure the speediest and easiest flow from the waiting areas to the aircraft. To enable passengers to leave the area as directly and quickly as possible there should be routes to the exits along the whole air side frontage as shown in Figure 9‑11. Any procedures or controls which aircraft operators apply, such as boarding pass inspection, etc., should be carried out at a point outside the waiting area. (A number of the points raised above will not apply if forward waiting areas are provided at the gate.)

9.6.7 Problems arise in planning when an area is very large. Passengers are attracted to positions from which there is a view of the apron and aircraft, and visual continuity is difficult to achieve when distances become too great. Thus, if the distance from land side to air side is too great, the land side of the area will tend to be underused while the air side will be overcrowded and the exit flow obstructed. For large passenger buildings, it is particularly difficult to achieve a satisfactory compromise because the space necessary for the number of passengers to be accommodated may make the distance from land side to air side greater than desirable. In such circumstances, one solution which might be considered is the provision of a balcony above the main waiting area.

Figure 9‑11. Waiting areas

9.7 GOVERNMENT FRONTIER CONTROLS

9.7.1 Departures frontier controls are contrary to the International Standards and Recommended Practices of ECAR 9. For States which still find it necessary to retain them, these controls should be executed at locations between the departure concourse and the air side waiting lounges. This section also includes preclearance under bilateral agreements between States, which provide for arrivals inspections to be carried out at the airport of departure.

Location

9.7.2 The location of frontier controls and the stage in the passenger processing system at which they are applied are important in maintaining free and continuous passenger flow (see Figure 9‑12). Controls should be located between the departures concourse and the air side waiting area, as this is the point where the rate of flow is most regular. Controls located at the exit from the air side waiting area would be subject to large surges and would delay passenger flow to aircraft.

9.7.3 After passing controls, passengers may not re-enter the land side areas and are segregated from all persons, other than staff authorized to enter the air side areas. The controls should be grouped together at one location and should form the entry control to the air side waiting area, thereby avoiding any additional control positions which would be an irritation to passengers and a hindrance to flow and involve additional space and staff costs.

9.7.4 The most frequently applied government exit controls are immigration and police, but some States also impose customs inspection of passengers or their hand baggage. Such customs inspection should be before check in, for baggage handling reasons.

Figure 9-12 Government frontier controls

9.7.5 Specific considerations for the location c frontier controls are:

(a) Passenger flow from aircraft to the frontier control facilities should be as short and direct as possible, and unimpeded by obstructions.

(b) Passenger circulation should be designed so that there is no cross‑circulation between international passengers and domestic passengers. Where appropriate, an area for exclusive use of international transit passengers should be provided.

(c) The design of frontier controls should be such that there is no possibility for passengers to bypass the facilities, thereby avoiding inspection.

(d) Physical contact between international passengers and visitors to the aerodrome should not be permitted once they have cleared controls.

Capacity

9.7.6 The capacity required for each authority and procedure is a function of the service time, passenger flow rate and proportion of passengers inspected. It is important to achieve a high rate of passenger clearance by reducing frontier controls service time and reducing cross and reverse flows of passengers seeking to complete and/or obtain the required documents. Although some passengers may always require longer than average service time because of particular problems, it will not be possible to handle increased rates. of passenger flow, including surges in average flow rates, unless those passengers whose documentation is complete can bypass such problem cases and thus maintain the average service time and flow rate.

Health Control

9.7.7 Unless epidemiological conditions require sanitary measures, it is now normal practice to integrate health control with immigration control. However, it may happen that the State requires personal medical inspection of certain passengers. The facilities required should be defined by the medical authorities concerned and may include X‑ray rooms. The medical facilities should be restricted to those required for passenger control and should not be a general first aid or medical centre for the airport. The location of passenger medical inspection facilities should be immediately adjacent to, but at the side of, the frontier control. A circulation route between the passport control and medical facilities should be provided which is compatible with the main arrival flow.

Immigration and Police

9.7.8 Passport clearance often includes, or is associated with, police inspection. Opening passports and other documents, and searching for visas and entry stamps represents a considerable proportion of the total service time. It is, therefore, a help in maintaining rapid passenger flow to reduce the number of occasions on which this has to be done, for instance by immigration and police officials inspecting documents together. Where immigration and police control cannot be operated with simultaneous inspection, the controls should be arranged consecutively on the line of the air side/land side flow route. If the service rates are different it is preferable for the inspection requiring the longest time to be placed first. Thus delays at the second control will not cause obstruction at the first control, and minimum distance may be provided between the two controls.

9.7.9 The straightest flow routes are obtained when the inspection positions are entirely homogeneous and any position can be used by any passenger. However, some States require varying degrees of inspection of documents, depending on the category of traffic and nationality of passengers. A faster over‑all flow and some economy in the number of positions can be achieved if some positions are allocated for the use only of those categories of passengers who are subject to minimal inspection. The capacity of these positions would as a result be very high, allowing more positions to be allocated exclusively to the categories of passengers subject to more detailed inspection and which, therefore, have a slower rate of flow. Where such arrangements are applied it is important that the positions for each category are proportionately related to, and evenly dispersed among, the parallel flow streams.

Control Authorities' Accommodation

9.7.10 The control authorities usually require offices and search and interview rooms in conjunction with the frontier control inspection points. These should be restricted to those essential for passenger processing and should be arranged on the flanks of the control position to maintain the widest unobstructed area for the controls. This ensures flexibility for future rearrangement and operational changes and the clearest, unobstructed flow routes. Search and interview rooms will probably need to ensure absolute privacy of both sound and vision; in providing this it is most important that visual continuity through the passenger flow route is not obstructed. General administration, etc., should be located elsewhere in the building (see Figures 9‑13 and 9‑14).

Figure 9‑13. Control authorities' accommodation

9.8 PASSENGER CONNEXIO WITH AIRCRAFT

Air Side Exits

9.8.1 While the type of connexion between the passenger building and aircraft may determine the precise form of the exits, they should be arranged to form the passenger flows into a linear pattern on a narrow front compatible with the size of the aircraft or apron passenger vehicle doors. Some form of control is necessary to ensure that only authorized persons and bona fide passengers are allowed to pass to the air side and board the aircraft. Such control is usually carried out by aircraft operators at the exits from the building or at the aircraft gates, and positions may be required for this control to be undertaken, arranged so that passengers can flow freely and easily out of the air side waiting area and past the control without obstructing other passengers or forming queues in the waiting area. The form and location of controls also depends upon the form of the connexion between the passenger building and aircraft and is considered in conjunction with the following section.

Figure 9-14 Layout of passenger security check

and forward waiting area

Aircraft Gates

9.8.2 Passenger processing and aircraft handling systems influence the form of the gates. The gates may be no more than doorways giving access to the aircraft stand, but they. can also appropriately accommodate a number of departures facilities including gate check‑in. The precise form should be determined by the nature of the passenger traffic, the flow rate and the processing system adopted for the passenger building.

9.8.3 The fullest implementation of the trickle flow principle should be the basis of planning. Trickle flow can be implemented over any section of a passenger route, with some form of group or controlled flow over the other sections if necessary. The full benefits of the system are achieved when passengers can flow freely, at their own speed, through all parts of the route. Ideally, this should include, in the case of departures, a flow directly into aircraft. However, it is not always possible to admit passengers to aircraft as soon as they arrive at the gate because of aircraft delays or incomplete cabin servicing, etc., making a waiting area necessary. For quick aircraft turnaround it is necessary for passengers to be at the gate ready to board the aircraft immediately it is available. A waiting area is necessary, therefore, for this purpose also.

Forward waiting areas

9.8.4 Provision of waiting areas at the gates reduces the requirement for the waiting area in the passenger building. The space required at each location is determined by the passenger processing system but space provided at the gates does not permit an equivalent reduction in the passenger building waiting area because some passengers will linger in the building to use the passenger amenities.

9.8.5 The size and layout of waiting areas depend upon the functions to be performed. With the increasingly rapid introduction of larger aircraft it is essential that the plan should provide maximum expansibility without need for rearrangement or reconstruction of the basic areas. If aircraft operators' controls are undertaken in the forward waiting area they may be applied, either as passengers enter the area or as they exit from it to board the aircraft. Climate can also affect the size and location of waiting areas. In cases where aircraft are subject to protracted delays because of weather conditions, passengers may wish to return to the waiting area in the passenger building to use the amenities. In such cases, due account should therefore be taken of this factor in planning the size of the main waiting area in the passenger building.

9.8.6 Forward waiting areas generally serve three purposes, namely, the provision of passenger lounge, passenger processing area, and passenger deplaning area.

(a) Passenger lounge area. The lounge comprises seating, processing and circulation areas. The area required is a function of the number of passengers anticipated to be in the lounge 15 to 30 minutes prior to boarding the aircraft. This number can be determined by applying the forecast aircraft and its load factor for boarding that is typically experienced at the airport. A space standard is applied to the number of passengers and visitors (if appropriate). The space standard assumes that not all passengers will have seats in the lounge, as a certain percentage of the passengers will want standing area, and this should be considered in the development of the standard. Based on experience, aircraft arrivals and departures are distributed over time so that the full passenger population is never experienced at one time. Where it is possible, therefore, to combine the lounge area for a number of aircraft gate positions, the total area can be reduced by 20 to 30 per cent, based on four to six gates.

(b) Passenger processing area. The number of agent positions is normally determined by the airport authority in consultation with the user airlines and is based on a standard of service that specifies minimum waiting and processing times for the passenger. Probably the greatest queue build-up occurs when the first agents appear at the desk to commence processing. Additional agents may then be furnished to reduce the queue and maintain a minimum length. The average depth of lounge area generally considered to be reasonable is 7.5 to 9 m. The number of agent positions used, however, is based on the standard of service with a queue length not less than 3 m at larger airports. Public telephones, garment bag hangars, wastebaskets, etc., are amenities that may be considered necessary. A means of delivering late baggage to the apron area (such as chute, conveyor or dumbwaiter) may be required, although in most cases the baggage can be delivered via the loading bridge door or the departure lounge door (if at ground level).

(c) Deplaning area. The deplaning area is a corridor for deplaning passengers leading from the building entrance door (from the apron, loading bridge, or transporters) to the public corridor without interfering with the passengers waiting in the departure lounge. To allow for two passengers and baggage side by side or one passenger and baggage with passing room, an acceptable width is 1.5 to 1.8 m. The length is a function of the depth of the departure lounge itself and may include a transition area for the meter/visitor.

Passenger security check

9.8.7 The location of the passenger security check is dependent upon traffic characteristics and the terminal concept. The security check can be centralized, partly decentralized or completely decentralized. A centralized security check can be located at the point in the terminal where passengers are separated from the general public (i.e. after immigration control). In case of a fully decentralized system, the security check will be made at the entrance to the waiting lounge. Should the initial passenger check reveal any abnormality, a closer examination of the passenger may be necessary and a private area where this may be carried out, should be provided. For further information see Chapter 14.

Connexion between Passenger Building and Aircraft

9.8.8 The system for moving passengers between the passenger building and the aircraft is an integral element in the choice of the aircraft parking system and apron plan.

The most appropriate system will depend on the traffic for which the individual airport is provided and other local conditions. The most important consideration is to maintain free movement of aircraft, vehicles and passengers while. Avoiding conflict between them.

9.8.9 A number of different systems can be used to connect the passenger building to the aircraft. These include having passengers walk up boarding stairs or along a passenger loading bridge, or conveying them in a transporters. The routes may be over the open apron, through enclosed routes at or below apron level, or at passenger building and aircraft floor levels. Any specifically defined route over which passengers walk, other than over an apron, is a "pier". Thus a pier can be at, above or below apron level.

9.8.10 For closest compatibility with the flow principles, the choice should be determined in consideration of the passenger building floor levels: for multi‑level passenger buildings the connexion between building and aircraft should keep to a minimum any changes in level, but because of the variety of aircraft floor heights it is impossible to define a single suitable level.

Aircraft boarding stairs

9.8.11 Integral aircraft stairs are used with aircraft in the 50‑120 seat capacity range, such as B727, B737, DC‑9, BACIII, CV580, and YS111B.

9.8.12 In the case of stairs, whether integral or mobile, the width and relative density in terms of persons per square metre serve as the limiting constraint for calculating capacity. Ascending or descending rates will not be significantly different in handbook references. Flow will be in one direction, enplaning or deplaning.

9.8.13 Passenger flow rate for aircraft in the 40‑210 seat capacity range is approximately 20 to 22 persons per minute, and 25 persons per minute for the 220‑420 seat capacity aircraft. In the latter case, the rate of boarding or disembarking can be increased by the use of more than one door, but this may create traffic conflicts on the apron with the ground service equipment operation.

Passenger loading bridges

9.8.14 Passenger loading bridges can provide quicker, more even passenger flow between aircraft and passenger buildings and protect passengers from weather, noise and fumes. The installation of passenger loading bridges, however, should be economically justified by traffic volumes and other considerations (refer to 7.2). The primary factors to be taken into account in planning passenger loading bridges are aircraft door sill heights (which range from 2 to 5 m) and door positions. The size and form of passenger loading bridges should be chosen to provide sufficient flexibility to serve different types of aircraft other than those indicated in the operational forecast, and for resting at new gate positions in accordance with changes in apron plans.

9.8.15 The capacity of the passenger loading bridge is determined by using the same density and width criteria applied to aircraft stairs. For the best passenger flow the interior width of passenger loading bridges should be sufficient for at least two people to walk side by side so that children and the aged or infirm can be suitably assisted. Floor slopes should generally not exceed one in ten.

9.8.16 The width of the loading bridge does not usually constrain the flow as much as does that of the aircraft door, which generally ranges from 84 to 107 cm. As with aircraft doors, another constraint on the flow rate could be the point where the passenger loading bridge joins the building. For example, a 90 cm wide doorway will allow a flow rate of 37 passengers per minute. Another constraint on the flow rate of the passenger loading bridge is the aisle width of the aircraft cabin. Studies in the United States support the flow rate of 30 passengers per minute identified in Boeing document D6A 10305‑1, "SST Ground Services Time and Motion Study".

9.8.17 The passenger flow rate may be reduced slightly if stairs rather than ramps must be negotiated. Stairs result in a 20 to 22 passenger per minute rate, similar to that of a mobile passenger stair. The stair or ramp may be provided with an enclosure for weather protection when a single‑level connector provided.

9.8.18 The passenger route should be clear and unambiguous and, if possible, should avoid multidirectional functions where the passenger loading bridge joins the building. The passenger loading bridges should be arranged to lead arriving passengers, who may not be familiar with the route, directly to the main flow routes into the passenger building.

9.8.19 The type of passenger loading bridge ‑ fixed pedestal, apron drive, or suspended ‑ and its length are functions of variables including apron dimensions, wing span, door locations, fixed aircraft services, adjacent aircraft positions, and economics. For example, a certain ramp drive bridge may extend up to 35 m from the face of the building, and may be capable of serving five or six different types of aircraft. In a practical application of the

passenger loading bridge, only two or three aircraft may use the bridge because of fixed service locations and positions of adjacent aircraft. A pedestal‑type bridge could be more appropriate in that case, particularly in view of its lower capital, operating and maintenance costs.

9.8.20 A ramp drive bridge, when in a stowed position, will allow a taxi‑out operation where the pedestal or suspended types are limited to putout operations. Judgements as to which passenger loading bridge design to apply to each case will be based on the specific characteristics of the aircraft mix and airline operating requirements.

9.8.21 Normally only one passenger loading bridge is required to serve any one aircraft up to and including the B‑747. This may, however, be affected by the airport involved and the type of traffic using that airport (i.e. originating/ terminating or transit). For very high-density routes or at airports where airlines require fast turnaround, as well as for maintenance of approved standards for business and first class passengers, installation of two passenger loading bridges may be preferable. If two passenger-loading bridges are to be used, there should be a separate tunnel to the terminal for each bridge or, alternatively, a double width corridor from the junction of the two bridges to the terminal building. The minimum width for this double corridor should be 3.2 m.

Transporters

9.8.22 Transporters vehicles may be used when aircraft are parked remote from the terminal. Transporters types range from a bus in combination with stairs to a specifically designed vehicle with an elevating capability.

9.8.23 When buses are to be used to transport passengers between remote stands and the terminal, consideration should be given to specially designed airport passenger buses. These vehicles should have a low floor height (preferably one step above the ground), wide doors, and minimum seating around the sides of the cabin. The capacity and dimensions of the bus should be in accordance with the conditions prevailing aIt each airport where it will be used. IATA has developed a functional specification (AHM 950) on airport passenger buses, which is also included in IATA's ‑Airport Handling Manual".

9.8.24 When a specifically designed vehicle with elevating capability is used, special attention should be paid to their relatively slow speeds, lack of easy manoeuvrability and the potential hazard they may be to aircraft operations. These vehicles have high capital, operating and maintenance costs and require highly skilled drivers.

9.8.25 In general, although transporters afford almost ideal flexibility from the apron planning point of view, they tend not to be compatible with the passenger flow principles. They may, however, be useful as a supplementary sSystem to handle peak hour demands only or to serve aircraft which differ from the general types of aircraft for which the airport is planned.

Transporters loading and unloading positions

9.8.26 The specific form of transporters loading positions depends upon the type of transporters to be accommodated. Generally, the positions should be considered as aircraft gates and the same planning considerations applied, except that transporters will generally occupy the loading gates for a much shorter period than aircraft occupy the stands. Therefore, the possible degree of trickle flow to the transporters loading positions may be much less, and the time spent in the waiting area may be correspondingly short.

9.8.27 Loading positions should be as close as possible to the passenger building air side waiting area, to reduce the walking distance and hence the time required for passengers to get from the waiting area to the aircraft. The specific location of the loading positions will usually be determined by the air side vehicle traffic circulation and the need to provide unobstructed access between the loading positions and the apron roads. The number of positions required depends upon the utilization of aircraft stands, size of aircraft, etc.

9.8.28 As with aircraft gates, it is possible to use the transporters gate positions for both departures and arrivals, but because the vehicle movement rate is higher than that of aircraft at the aircraft stands and thus the movement rate of passengers is also higher, it is advisable to separate the departures and arrivals flows and provide separate transporters positions for each. This separation also permits the unloading positions to be located as close as possible to the arrivals flow routes in the passenger building, thus reducing walking distances.

Air Side Entrances

9.8.29 From piers or transporters unloading positions passengers flow into the passenger building. Although two‑way flow of departures and arrivals passengers is unavoidable and tolerable in piers, in no circumstances should arrivals flow routes pass through departures areas in the passenger building. The airside entrances should, therefore, give access directly to the arrivals areas of the building. These may be on a lower floor in multi‑level

buildings or by the side of the departures areas in single level buildings. In multi‑level buildings the descent should be direct, obvious and easy.

9.8.30 Passengers entering the building include transit and transfer passengers as well as passengers ending their air journey. The air side entrances should be arranged to separate passengers into the appropriate flow streams (see Figure 9‑15). The entrances for each category should be arranged consecutively along the flow route so that passengers do not have to choose from more than two alternatives at any time. Confusion will arise if special categories are not segregated from the main flow before the first control point. Thus all arrivals passengers should flow through a common route as far as possible; when transfer and transit passengers are not subject to controls, they should be diverted before the main route reaches the frontier controls.

9.9 TRANSIT AND TRANSFER PASSENGERS

Transit Passengers

9.9.1 Transit passengers stay at the airport only for the duration of the aircraft turnaround, and have no requirements beyond those of arrivals and departures passengers. Usually they should follow the main arrivals route, until being diverted directly into the departures air side waiting area or into a sterile "in‑transit" waiting lounge. However, some transit flights change category and in these circumstances transit passengers may be subject to frontier controls. Their requirements are then the same as transfer passengers and the same facilities can be used for both. Transit passengers who arrive and depart on international flights should never be subjected to frontier controls and should remain in the air side area, where all amenities which they may require are provided. On departure of their flight, they follow the normal routes and procedures of departure passengers, including security check, if required.

Transfer Passengers

9.9.2 The flow route for transfer passengers depends on whether the transfer is between flights of the same or different categories, i.e. domestic to domestic, international to international, or between international and domestic. When the traffic is between international and domestic, transfer passengers are subject to the normal arrivals controls and should follow the main arrivals route to the land side, where they then pass through the main departures flow route and follow the normal departures procedures.

9.9.3 When traffic is entirely domestic or international, transfer passengers should not pass through arrival controls. They should be segregated from the main arrivals flow and pass directly to the departures air side waiting area, usually following the same route as transit passengers (see Figure 9‑16). Unlike transit passengers who leave the airport on the same flight on which they arrive, however, transfer passengers change flights, and it may be necessary for them to check in for the connecting flight This can be undertaken either at the gate, if such facilities are provided, or preferably on the route to the departures waiting area. At airports serving a number of airlines, some form of shared use of transfer check‑in positions is necessary to avoid the provision of facilities which are excessive and thus uneconomical, and which distort the building plan. Nowadays many airlines provide boarding passes for on‑line transfer at the originating station, so that transfer passengers do not need to check in for the connecting flight at the transfer station Figure 9‑15. Air side entrances

9.9.4 For international flights at airports where there is more than one international passenger building, a passenger transfer system that operates on the air side is desirable for the transfer of passengers and baggage between international flights. Requirements for the vehicle unloading and loading positions are the same as for other transporters, and the same positions can be used for both.

.

Figure 9‑16. Transfer passengers

9.10 PASSENGER AMENITIES AND

OTHER PASSENGER BUILDING SERVICES

9.10.1 Airport master planning also includes consideration of passenger amenities, concessions, and other services usually located in the passenger building.

Passenger Amenities

9.10.2 Amenities should be sited to ensure that passengers using them do not interfere with the primary flow streams and they should not obstruct visual continuity throughout the area. The location of amenities can affect the rate of flow through the building, and the appropriate sitting of the amenities relative to each other and the flow routes can be of considerable assistance in distributing passengers throughout the whole of the waiting area and in reducing circulation within the area. The nature of each amenity provides a general indication of the degree and type of use it will receive. For example, duty‑free goods and liquor shops can with advantage be adjacent to the main flow routes for easiest access by a large number of passengers and to provide fast service.

9.10.3 Depending upon the size of the passenger building and the category of traffic, the departures concourse can be the appropriate location for some passenger amenities. If they are also provided in the air side waiting area there may be a reduction in the time passengers remain in the departures concourse and, therefore, in the space required.

9.10.4 The greatest use of other amenities is generally made by passengers with the longest waiting periods. Passengers whose aircraft boarding is imminent tend to gravitate to those parts of the waiting areas nearest the exits. It is important, therefore, to site amenities so that the passengers who are likely to remain in the area for the longest period are attracted away from the busiest areas nearest the flow routes. These areas of least activity, which are the appropriate sites for passenger amenities, are between the main flow routes and adjacent to the land side boundary of the waiting areas.

9.10.5 The sitting should also be related to service accesses for supplying goods, and storage areas. To preserve flexibility and economy in the use of space, all main storage areas should be located elsewhere in the building and only sufficient for immediate purposes should be provided in the waiting areas.

9.10.6 At some airports, planning efforts have suffered because of conflicting views on priorities for the location and size of revenue‑producing services in relation to basic airline services for passengers. One example involves inbound baggage or claim facilities that are constrained by the location of concessions or another ancillary functions. The resultant delays in baggage delivery and display end up inconveniencing passengers, and the by‑product of such delays can often be congestion, not only in the baggage claim area, but also in the adjacent circulation elements and at the curb.

9.10.7 Concessionaires, airport authorities, and airlines share common concerns regarding customer satisfaction and economic productivity, and ultimately suffer by inconveniencing passengers upon whose patronage all three groups are highly dependent. Accordingly, the following suggestions are offered:

‑ The location and accessibility of passenger building services should provide the optimum exposure and convenience for patrons without impeding basic patterns of pedestrian traffic between aircraft and various forms of ground transportation.

‑ The location and sizing of passenger building services should not constrain basic airline functions to the extent that passengers cannot be serviced efficiently.

Food and beverage services

9.10.8 Food and beverage services include snack bars, coffee shops, restaurants and bar‑lounges, and warrant discussion as a distinct sub‑element of the passenger building because the quantitative aspects involve more than a simple relationship to annual emplacements or daily passenger averages.

9.10.9 The basic service offered at the small airports is a coffee shop, although a separate restaurant can be successful, depending on the surrounding community. Only very large airports can justify several locations for snack bars, coffee shops, bar‑lounges and restaurants. Requirements for more than one of each type are greatly influenced by the building concept involved, particularly for linear terminals at very large airports.

9.10.10 One approach to sizing involves "use factors(average daily transactions divided by average daily emplacements) and "turnovers" (average day users or transactions divided by the number of restaurant and coffee shop seats available). Based on available data, the following ranges can provide general approximations for food and beverage service operations:

(a) turnover rates: average daily 10 to 19 persons per seat. Some operators appear satisfied averaging 10 to 14 daily;

(b) space per seat: 3.3 to 3.7 M2 per coffee shop/ restaurant seat, including support space;

(c) snack bars: 15 to 25 per cent of coffee shop/ restaurant over‑all space requirement;

(d) bar‑lounges: 25 to 35 per cent of coffee shop/ restaurant over‑all space requirement.

9.10.11 For large airports, the passenger building concept may justify more than one location for food and beverage services. Under these circumstances, space estimated should be divided accordingly.

9.10.12 Vending machines for beverages and other items should be considered to supplement staffed facilities at small airports, where traffic volumes might not justify operating during all hours in which flights are scheduled, or at large airports in remote parts of the passenger building.

Other concessionaire services

9.10.13 The kinds of services regarded as desirable vary according to traffic volumes and many of the other marketing considerations. Programming such space for any specific airport must be based on discussions with both existing and potential operators and concessionaires. Representative guidelines are summarized as follows:

(a) Newspapers/books and tobacco: physically separate at most airports where annual emplacements exceed 200 000 per year, and may be combined with other services at airports with lesser traffic. Allow 14 M² minimum and averaging 56 to 65 M² per million annual emplacements.

(b) Gift and apparel shops: some items are sold at the news-stand at smaller airports, but separate facilities normally become viable when annual emplacements exceed one million. Allow 56 to 65 M² per million annual emplacements.

(c) Barber and shoe shine: operations at some large airports call for one chair per million annual emplacements. Allow 10 to 11 M² per chair with 14 M² for minimum facility.

(d) Car hire counters: space required will vary according to the number of companies. Allow 33 to 37 m' per million annual emplacements.

(e) Displays, including courtesy telephones for hotels: allow 8 to 9 M² per million annual emplacements.

(f) Insurance, including counters and machines: allow 14 to 16 M² per million annual emplacements.

(g) Left luggage lockers: allow 6.5 to 7.5 M² per million annual emplacements.

(h) Public telephones: allow 9 to 10 M² per million annual emplacements.

(i) Vending machines: machines offering items such as hot and cold beverages, candy, tobacco, newspapers, etc., should be considered as supplementary to staffed facilities offering these items, especially where extended hours of operation are not justified by low volumes or multiplicity of locations. Providing passengers with more conveniently located options for these items has become even more important with the advent of security controls discussed in Chapter 14. Where vending machines are provided, they should be grouped or recessed to avoid encroaching upon circulation space for primary traffic flows. Allow 4.5 M² minimum or 14 M² per million annual emplacements.

Other Passenger Building Services

9.10.14 Passenger building services also include facilities common to most public buildings and others common to many airports, regardless of traffic volumes. Such facilities include:

(a) Public toilets: must be sized for building occupancies in accordance with codes applicable to the local community, state, etc. Space allowances vary greatly, from 139 to 167 M² per 500 peak‑hour passengers (in and out) down to 120 M² per million annual emplacements at large hub airports.

(b) Airport management offices: space requirements vary according to the size of staff and the extent to which airport authority headquarters are located in the terminal.

(c) Airport police/security office: space requirements vary according to number of staff and nature of arrangements with local community law enforcement agencies.

(d) Medical aid facilities: range from first aid service provided by airport police to branch operations of off‑airport clinics, etc.

(e) Travellers aid: facilities vary considerably and space requirements are relatively minor 7.4 to 9.3 M² , except at airports with annual emplacements of over 1 million.

(f) Building maintenance and storage: varies depending upon the types of maintenance (contracted versus authority operated) and storage facilities available in other authority‑owned buildings.

Building mechanical systems (HVAC): initial approximations of HVAC space requirements can be obtained by using 12 to 15 per cent of the gross total space approximated for all other terminal functions. This allowance will not cover separate facilities for primary source heating and refrigeration (H and R) plants.

(h) Building structure: for building columns and walls, allow 5 per cent of the total gross area approximated for all other functions.

(i) Circulation: all primary circulation is included in the methodologies for the various sub‑elements of the passenger building. Additional space for vertical and horizontal circulation is not included, but will be required in varying quantities depending upon the building scheme.

(j) Information: public address, flight information, signs and graphics, courtesy phones, and security alarm system are included under this heading.

(k) Government offices: these facilities may require a considerable amount of space, depending upon individual State practices.

(1) Contract service facilities and others.

(m) Letter post.

9.11 CONSIDERATION OF DISABLED

AND ELDERLY PEOPLE IN PASSENGER

BUILDING PLANNING

9.11.1 The speed and comfort of air travel is becoming more and more appealing to people who are physically handicapped and the use of air transport by disabled and elderly people, including the chair bound, is likely to increase. For many, particularly the severely disabled, the most convenient method of long‑distance travel is by air, provided the transition facilities match the convenience of the aircraft.

9.11.2 Both disabled and elderly passengers as well as visitors have rights to safety and convenience. It should be remembered that a person with a disability is not different in all aspects of behaviour. Their special problems and differences need to be recognized so that the planner/designer may accommodate them satisfactorily.

9.11.3 The transition between air and surface transport needs to be improved and terminal facilities must keep pace with the convenience offered by modern aircraft. Several States have developed design standards or building codes for disabled people that can be applied for airport passenger buildings. The following paragraphs include planning consideration of disabled and elderly people in airport passenger buildings based on the practices advocated by one State.

Planning Consideration for Access by the Disabled

Ramps

9.11.4 Unless the surface leading to a one in six ramp is flat or sloping down, wheelchair users have difficulty getting up this gradient. One in twelve ramps are difficult for other than the strongest wheelchair users; one in sixteen is better. Difficulties can also be experienced if ramps have to be approached from an angle. Curbs at sides of ramps can be a problem, and the location of handrail supports and the finish of both ends of handrails need to be carefully designed.

9.11.5 The height generally accepted for ramp curbs is 10 cm, although 5 cm minimum seems to be more acceptable. Curb edges need to be rounded and the finish at the top and bottom of the ramp carefully designed.

Stairs

9.11.6 The termination of handrails at the top and bottom of flights of stairs need to be individually designed to suit the circumstances.

Terminal Approach and Departure Areas

Car parking

9.11.7 It is desirable to provide identified reserved parking areas for physically disabled people, using the access symbol. Directional signs should indicate access routes to reserved parking areas, which should be located close to the terminal entrance. Regulations should be enforced to ensure exclusive use of reserved parking spaces by the disabled.

9.11.8 The parking spaces should be flat and protected from the weather. The route from the reserved parking to the terminal should be free of curbs and obstructions and located so that disabled people do not have to pass behind parked cars. Parking meters, attendants' windows, ticket machines and similar devices should be within the limited reach and grasp of a disabled driver. Wheelchairs should be available for people to move to taxi, bus or private car loading areas. This service should be clearly advertised.

External circulation

9.11.9 People using wheelchairs find ramps essential to negotiate changes in level and these are helpful for the ambulant disabled. Both ramps and stairs should be provided at every change in level. Ramps should not exceed one in twelve and should have non‑slip surfaces. Handrails should be provided at least to one side.

9.11. 10 Pedestrian walkways should be unobstructed and at least 1.5 m wide. At places where pedestrians or wheelchair users must cross curbs, a cut or ramp should be provided. Gratings, manhole covers and similar potential obstructions should be flush with the pavement. Pedestrian and vehicular traffic routes require effective separation.

Terminal entrances and exits

9.11.11 Safe, level areas, protected from the weather, should be provided for boarding and delivery of people from cars, buses, etc., adjacent to main building entrances and exits.

9.11.12 There should be at least one main entrance without steps usable by people in wheelchairs. Automatic opening doors are highly desirable. If doors are hand operated they should be operable by one hand and the handles should be of a lever type. Where revolving doors are installed, an alternative hinged or sliding door should be provided. Door closers should be of a type to permit opening of the door with a minimum of effort and slow closing to allow uninterrupted passage of a wheelchair. Time lapse devices which close doors after a prescribed delay should be avoided as they are dangerous to those who move slowly.

9.11.13 Interior and exterior floor surfaces should be level on each side of entrance doors, with floor mats recessed and fully secured.

Internal Circulation

9.11.14 All interior public spaces should be connected by ramped paths or identified lifts, and public corridors should be free of obstructions. All abrupt changes in floor level should be clearly identified by audio and visual means.

Doors and doorways

9.11.15 Attention should be given to the direction of door swing so that wheelchair occupants can open doors without complex manoeuvring. Revolving doors are to be avoided. Doors in corner positions must permit easy approach and there should be an unobstructed space adjacent to the door handle. Side hung doors are preferred to sliding doors. Kick plates are recommended on doors used by wheelchairs users.

9.11.16 All floors should be maintained in a non‑skid condition. All carpet areas should be of the low‑pile, tight-loop type and fully secured to prevent movement.

Ramps

9.11.17 Ramps should be at least 1.2 m wide (1.5 m is even better). Ramp slope should not exceed one in twelve. Surfaces should be non‑slip. A level area, preferably 1.2 m long, should be provided at top and bottom of all ramps. Ramps more than 9 m long should have a level section at 9 m intervals (5 m for steeper ramps). At each change of direction a level landing should be provided. Handrails should be provided on each side of ramp. The disabled access symbol should be displayed at the approach to the ramp.

Stairs

9.11.18 Treads should be of non‑slip material. A landing midway in a stair run between floors is desirable. Open risers and projecting noses should be avoided. Handrails should be provided on both sides. Ramps are preferable where minor changes in floor level occur.

Escalators and moving walkways

9.11.19 Wheelchairs, unless specially designed, cannot be easily moved on escalators. While escalators can be useful to the ambulant disabled, they can be hazardous to many elderly disabled people, and ramps or lifts are therefore preferable.

Elevators

9.11.20 The only really effective way of moving chair bound people from floor to floor is by elevator. Where elevators are provided, at least one should be accessible to and usable by the disabled, including those in wheelchairs, both at the entrance level and at all upper levels used by the public. The elevator should be large enough to accommodate a wheelchair and one or two standing persons. If automatic, the elevator controls should be located so they can be reached by a seated person. The cab should be self‑levelling, and the doors should be adjusted to remain open for at least eight seconds, to close slowly, and to respond to both a sensitive safety edge and photoelectric cell door openers. An audio description of the floor reached is desirable. Directional signs to the lift should be placed at various points in the building.

Signs and Warnings

9.11.21 Because people in wheelchairs are normal people, to be treated in a normal way, it is wrong to provide special signposts indicating "normal" facilities available for them. But it is acceptable to provide sign-posting of "special" facilities for disabled people.

9.11.22 A pictorial symbol effectively advertises the availability of facilities for the disabled. This symbol should be prominently displayed as a ready means of identification to disabled persons of all routes and areas where suitable facilities are provided.

9.11.23 Directional signs and room identifiers are normally useless to blind people. It is desirable that identification of certain rooms, e.g. rest rooms, restaurants aand gate positions by raised or depressed letters be placed on walls beside doors, not on doors, as sudden opening may result in injury. Audible and visual signals to indicate a hazardous area, e.g. a door to an area used by baggage trucks, are desirable to protect blind and deaf people. Curbs, which serve as a warning to blind people using a cane, should be provided at any change from a pedestrian area to a roadway for vehicles. Visual and audible passenger information is desirable.

Toilets and Showers

9.11.24 Toilet facilities should be accessible to wheelchair users and should include at least one WC compartment sized and fitted for use by the disabled, including wheelchair users.

Embarking and Disembarking

9.11.25 Passenger loading bridges or flush coupling transfer vehicles are desirable for level or ramped access to and from aircraft. Where this is not provided, alternative transfer facilities should be available.

Baggage Claim

9.11.26 Routes to baggage claim areas should be designated by audible and visual means. It is desirable that baggage claim areas be at the same floor level as that at which the arriving passenger enters the terminal, if ramped or elevator access if not provided. Airport or airline personnel should be readily available to provide assistance to disabled people.

Other Facilities and Services

Check‑in facilities

9.11.27 Cheek‑in facilities should be as close as possible to passenger set‑down areas for cars, buses, etc.

Drinking fountains

9.11.28 Drinking fountain controls should be hand operated; the fountain should be low enough for use by wheelchair occupants, but high enough to allow the arm of the wheelchair to move beneath it.

Telephones and post boxes

9.11.29 At least one in a group of telephones should be accessible by wheelchair users, with the handset and coin slots approximately 1 m above floor level. Telephone books should be located so they can be read from a seated position. Telephone operating instructions with raised lettering is desirable. Post boxes should have an opening which can be operated by one hand, not more than 1 m above floor. Splayed legs should be avoided. Tables 71 cm high with 71 cm between the legs are suitable.

Baggage storage

9.11.30 Areas for baggage storage should be located adjacent to main entrances and baggage claim areas. Storage systems should be easily operable by persons of limited manual dexterity.

Security

9.11.31 All security gates should be at least 90 cm wide. All security conveyor belts and check tables should be at a height of 76 cm above floor.

Special services

9.11.32 Airport guide maps for blind or otherwise handicapped persons should be available.

References

ECAR 9 ‑ Facilitation.

International Signs to Provide Guidance to Persons at Airports (Doc 9430).

Dynamic Flight‑related Public Information Displays

(Doc 9249).

"Airport Terminals Reference Manual", published by the International Air Transport Association.

“The Apron and Terminal Building, Planning Report", U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, Report No. FAA‑RD 75‑191, July 1975.

"Airport Master Plans", U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, AC 150/5070‑6A, June 1985.

‑Airport Planning Manual", Volumes 1 and 2, Department of Housing and Construction, Australia, 1985.