CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
1.=
1.1 &=
nbsp; In
view of the vital function of runways and certain associated elements in
providing for safe and efficient aircraft landings and take‑offs it is
imperative that in designing these facilities account be taken of the
operational and physical characteristics of the aeroplanes expected to use =
the
runway, as well as engineering and economic considerations.
1.=
1.2 &=
nbsp; The
aerodrome elements, associated with runways, which are directly associated =
with
the landing and take‑off of aeroplanes on runways are: runway strips,
runway shoulders, stopways, clearways and runway end safety areas. This Man=
ual
incorporates discussion on the provision of runways and these associated
elements and summarises specifications and guidance material relating to th=
eir
geometric design.
Pa=
vement
strength design aspects are covered in Aerodro=
me
Design Part 3 ‑ Pavements=
.
1.2 EXPLANATION OF TERMS
Aerodrome.
Aerodrome elevation.
Cl=
earway. A defined rectangular area on the ground or water under the control=
of
the Appropriate Authority, selected or prepared as a suitable area over whi=
ch
an aeroplane may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height.=
Displaced threshold.
Frangibility. =
A
characteristic of an object to retain its structural integrity and stiffnes=
s up
to a desired maximum load, but on impact from a greater load, to break, dis=
tort
or yield in such a manner as to present the minimum hazard to aircraft.
Instrument runway. =
One
of the following types of runways intended for the operation of aircraft us=
ing
instrument approach procedures:
a) No=
n‑precision
approach runway. An instrument runway served by visual aids and a non‑=
;visual
aid providing at least directional guidance adequate for a straight‑in
approach.
b) Precision
approach runway, category 1. An instrument runway served by ILS and visual =
aids
intended for operations down to
c) Precision
approach runway, category II. An instrument runway served by ILS and visual
aids intended for operations down to
d) Precision
approach runway, category III. An instrument runway served by ILS to and al=
ong
the surfa6e of the runway and:
B ‑ intended for operations down to an M of the order of=
Landing area. That= part of a movement area intended for the landing or take‑off of aircraft.<= o:p>
Movement area. That part of an aerodrome to=
be
used for the take‑off, landing and taxiing of aircraft, consisting of=
the
manoeuvring area and the apron(s).
Non‑instrument
runway. A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual
approach procedures.
Obstacle.
Primary runway(s). =
Runway(s)
used in preference to others whenever conditions permit.
Ru=
nway. A defined
rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take̴=
9;off
of aircraft.
Runway end safety area
(RESA). An a=
rea
symmetrical about the extended runway centre line and adjacent to the end of
the strip primarily intended to reduce the risk of damage to an aeroplane
undershooting or overrunning the runway.
Ru=
nway
strip. A defined area including the runway and
stopway, if provided, intended:
a) to=
reduce
the risk of damage to aircraft running off a runway; and
b) to prote=
ct
aircraft flying over it during take‑off or landing operations.
Shoulder.
Threshold.
1.3 AERODROME REFERENCE CODE
1.=
3.1 &=
nbsp; The
intent of the reference codes to provide a simple method for inter-rel=
ating
the numerous specifications concerning tile characteristics of aerodromes s=
o as
to provide a series of aerodrome facilities that are suitable for the
aeroplanes that are intended to operate at the aerodrome. The code is compo=
sed
of two elements which are related to the aeroplane performance characterist=
ics
and dimensions. Element 1 is a number based on the aeroplane reference field
length and element 2 is a letter based on the aeroplane wing span and outer
main gear wheel span.
1.=
3.2 &=
nbsp; A
particular specification is related to the more appropriate of the two elem=
ents
of the code or to an appropriate combination of the two code elements. The =
code
letter or number within an element selected for design purposes is related =
to
the critical aeroplane characteristics for which the facility is provided. =
When
applying the relevant specifications in Annex 14, the aeroplanes which the
aerodrome is intended to serve are first identified and then the two elemen=
ts
of the code.
1.=
3.3 &=
nbsp; An
aerodrome reference code ‑ code number and letter ‑ which is
selected for aerodrome planning purposes shall be determined in accordance =
with
the characteristics of the aeroplane for which an aerodrome facility is
intended. Further, the aerodrome reference code numbers and letters shall h=
ave
the meanings assigned to them in Table 1‑2. A classification of
representative aeroplanes by the code number and code letter is included in
Appendix 1.
1.=
3.4 &=
nbsp; The
code number for element 1 shall be determined from Table 1‑1, Column =
1,
selecting the code number corresponding to the highest value of the aeropla=
ne
reference field lengths of the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended.=
The
aeroplane reference field length is defined as the minimum field length
required for take‑off at maximum certificated take‑off mass, sea
level, standard atmospheric conditions, still air and zero runway slope, as
shown in the appropriate aeroplane flight manual prescribed by the
certificating authority or equivalent data from the aeroplane manufact=
urer.
Accordingly, if
1.=
3.5 &=
nbsp; The
code letter for element 2 shall be determined from Table 1‑1, Column =
3,
by
selecting the code letter which corresponds to the greatest wing span, or t=
he
greatest outer main gear wheel span, whichever gives the more demanding code
letter of the aeroplanes for which the facility is intended. For instance, =
if
code letter C corresponds to the aeroplane with the greatest wing span and =
code
letter D corresponds to the aeroplane with the greatest outer main gear whe=
el
span, the code letter selected would be 'D'.
Table 1‑1.‑ Aerodrome reference code
|
Code element 1 |
Code
element 2
|
|||
|
Code number |
Aeroplane reference field length |
Code letter |
Wing span |
Outer main gear wheel span |
|
(1) |
(2) |
(3) |
(4) |
(5) |
|
1 |
Less than 80=
0m |
A |
Up to but not including 15=
m |
Up to but not including 4.=
5m |
|
2 |
including 12=
00m |
B |
including 24=
m |
including 6m=
|
|
3 |
including 18=
00m |
C |
including 36=
m |
including 9m=
|
|
4 |
|
D |
including 52=
m |
including 14=
m |
|
|
|
E |
including 65m |
including 14=
m |
|
|
|
F |
65=
m up to but not
including 80m |
including 16=
m |
CHAPTER 2
CONFIGURATION CONSIDERATIONS
2.1 FACTORS RELATING TO THE SITING, ORIENTATION AND NUMBER OF RUNWAY=
S
Ge=
neral
2.=
1.1 &=
nbsp; Many
factors affect the determination of the siting, orientation and number of
runways. The more important being:
a) we=
ather,
in particular the runway/aerodrome usability factor, as determined by wind
distribution, and the occurrence of localised fogs; topography of the aerod=
rome
site and its surroundings;
c) ty= pe and amount of air traffic to be served, including air traffic control aspects;<= o:p>
d)=
aeroplane performance
considerations; and
e)
environmental considerations, particularly noise.
2.=
1.2 &=
nbsp; The
primary runway, to the extent other factors permit, should be oriented in t=
he
direction of the prevailing wind. All runways should be oriented so that
approach and departure areas are free of obstacles and, preferably, so that
aircraft are not directed over populated areas.
2.=
1.3 &=
nbsp; A
sufficient number of runways is required to meet air traffic demands, i.e.,=
the
number of aircraft, mixture of aircraft types and the mixture of arrivals a=
nd
departures, to be accommodated in one hour during the busiest periods. The
decision as to the total number of runways to be provided should also take =
into
account the aerodrome usability factor and economic considerations.
Ty=
pe
of operation
2.=
1.4 &=
nbsp; Attention
should be paid in particular to whether the aerodrome is to be used in all
meteorological conditions or only in visual meteorological conditions, and
whether it is intended for use by day and night or only by day.
2.=
1.5 &=
nbsp; When
a new instrument runway is being located, particular attention needs to be
given to areas over which aeroplanes will be required to fly when following
instrument approach and missed approach procedures, so as to ensure that
obstacles in these areas or other factors will not restrict the operation of
the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended.
Wi=
nd
2.=
1.6 &=
nbsp; The
number and orientation of runways at an aerodrome should be such that the
usability factor of the aerodrome is not less than 95 per cent, for the
aeroplane that the aerodrome is intended to serve.
2.=
1.7 &=
nbsp; In
the application of the 95 per cent usability factor it should be assumed th=
at
landing or take‑off of aeroplanes is, in normal circumstances, preclu=
ded
when the cross‑wind component exceeds:
2.=
1.8 &=
nbsp; The
selection of data to be used for the calculation of the usability factor sh=
ould
be based on reliable wind distribution statistics that extend over as long a
period as possible, preferably of not less than five years. The observations
used should be made at least eight times daily and spaced at equal interval=
s of
time, and should take into account the following:
a) wi=
nd
statistics used for the calculation of the usability factor are normally
available in ranges of speed and direction and the accuracy of the results
obtained depends to a large extent on the assumed distribution of observati=
ons
within these ranges. In the absence of any sure information as to the true
distribution, it is usual to assume a uniform distribution since, in relati=
on
to the most favourable runway orientations, this generally results in a
slightly conservative figure for the usability factor;
b) the maxi=
mum
mean cross‑wind components given in 2.1.7 refer to normal circumstances. There are some fact=
ors
which may require that a reduction of those maximum values be taken into
account at a particular aerodrome. These include:
1) &nbs=
p; the
wide variations which may exist, in handling characteristics and maximum
permissible cross‑wind components, among diverse types of aeroplanes
(including future types) within each of the three groups given in 2.1.7;
3) prevalence
and nature of turbulence;
4) the
availability of a secondary runway;
5) the
width of runways;
6)=
the runway
surface conditions ‑ water, snow, slush and ice on the runway materia=
lly
reduce the allowable cross‑wind component; and
7)=
the strengt=
h of
the wind associated with the limiting cross‑wind component.
2.1.9 &=
nbsp; The
95 per cent criterion recommended by Annex 14 is applicable to all conditio=
ns
of weather; nevertheless it is useful to examine wind speed and direction f=
or
different visibility conditions. Weather records can usually be obtained fr=
om
government weather bureaux. The velocities are generally grouped into 225
degree increments (16 points of the compass). The weather records contain t=
he
percentage of time certain combinations of ceiling and visibility occur (e.=
g.
ceiling, 500 to
Visibility conditions
2,.1.10 &=
nbsp; Wind
characteristics under poor visibility conditions are often quite different =
from
those experienced under good visibility conditions. Therefore a study shoul=
d be
made of the wind conditions occurring with poor visibility and/or low cloud
base at the aerodrome. Account should be taken of the frequency of occurren=
ce
as well as the accompanying wind direction and speed.
Topography of the aerod=
rome
site, its approaches and surroundings
2.1.11 &=
nbsp; Consideration
should be given to the topographical features of the aerodrome and its
surroundings. In particular the following should be reviewed:
a) compliance with the obstacle limitation
surfaces;
b)=
current and future land=
use.
The orientation and layout should be selected so as to protect as far as
possible the particularly sensitive areas such as residential, school and
hospital zones from the discomfort caused by aircraft noise;
c) current and future runway lengths to be
provided;
d) construction costs; and
Air traffic in the vici=
nity
of the aerodrome
2.1.12 &=
nbsp; When
considering the siting of runways the following should be taken into
account:
a) proximity of other aerodromes or ATS routes;
b) traffic density; and=
c) air traffic control =
and
missed approach procedures.
Environmental factors
2.1.13 &=
nbsp; Account
should be taken of the effect of a particular runway alignment on wild life,
the general ecology of the area and noise‑sensitive areas of communit=
ies.
2.1.14 &=
nbsp; The
noise level produced by aircraft operations at and around the aerodrome is
generally considered a primary environmental cost associated with the facil=
ity.
Most noise exposure lies within the land area immediately beneath and adjac=
ent
to the aircraft approach and departure paths. Noise levels are generally
measured through some formulation of decibel level, duration, and number of
occurrences. A large number of noise measuring techniques exist (see Annex 16 and Circular 205). Proper site selectio=
n and
adjacent land use planning can serve to greatly reduce and possibly elimina=
te
the noise problem associated with the aerodrome.
Parallel runways
2.1.15 &=
nbsp; The
number of runways to be provided in each direction depends on the forecast =
of
aircraft movements (see Doc 9184, Airport Plan=
ning
Manual, Part 1).
2.1.16 VMC operations. Where parallel runways are provided for
simultaneous use under visual meteorological conditions only, the minimum
distance between their centre lines should be:
2.1.17 IMC operations. Where paral=
lel
runways are provided for simultaneous operations under instrument
meteorological conditions, the minimum separation distance between their ce=
ntre
lines should be:
-
‑
&#=
8209;
- =
&nb=
sp; =
except that:
a) for segregated parallel operations the
specified separation distance:
1)=
may be decreased by
2)=
should be increased by
b)=
lower separation distan=
ces
than those specified above may be applied if, after aeronautical study, it =
is
determined that such lower separation distances would not affect the safety=
of
operations of aircraft.
2.1.18 &=
nbsp; Guidance
on planning and conducting simultaneous operations on parallel or near̴=
9;parallel
instrument runways is contained in Circular 207 &=
#8211;
Simultaneous Operations on Parallel or Near‑Parallel Instrument
Runways (SOIR).
Terminal area between
parallel runways
2.1.19 &=
nbsp; To
minimise taxi operations across active runways and to better utilise the ar=
ea
between the parallel runways, the terminal area and other operational areas=
may
be placed between parallel runways. To accommodate these areas, greater
separation distances than those recommended in the preceding paragraph may =
be
required.
2.2
LOCATION OF THRESHOLD
2..2.1 &=
nbsp; The
threshold is normally located at the extremity of a runway, if there are no
obstacles penetrating above the approach surface. In some cases, however, d=
ue
to local conditions it may be desirable to displace the threshold permanent=
ly
(see 2.2.3). When studying the location of a threshold, consideration should
also be given to the height of the ILS reference datum and the determinatio=
n of
the obstacle clearance limits. (Specifications concerning the height of the=
ILS
reference datum are given in Annex 10, Volume I.)
2.2.2 &=
nbsp; In
determining that no obstacle penetrates above the approach surface, account
should be taken of mobile objects (vehicles on roads, trains, etc.) at least
within that portion of the approach area within
2.2.3 &=
nbsp; If
an object extends above the approach surface and the object cannot be remov=
ed,
consideration should be given to displacing the threshold permanently.
2.2.4 &=
nbsp; To
meet the obstacle limitation objectives of Annex 14, Chapter
4, the threshold should ideally be displaced down the runway for the
distance necessary to ensure that the approach surface is clear of obstacle=
s.
2.2.5 &=
nbsp; However,
displacement of the threshold from the runway extremity will inevitably cau=
se
reduction of the landing distance available and this may be of greater
operational significance than penetration of the approach surface by marked=
and
lighted obstacles. A decision to displace the threshold and the extent of s=
uch
displacement should therefore have regard to an optimum balance between the
considerations of clear approach surfaces and adequate landing distance. In
deciding this question, account will need to be taken of the types of
aeroplanes which the runway is intended to serve, the limiting visibility a=
nd
cloud base conditions under which the runway will be used; the position of =
the
obstacles in relation to the threshold and extended centre line and, in the
case of a precision approach runway, the significance of the obstacles to t=
he
determination of the obstacle clearance limit.
2.2.6 &=
nbsp; Notwithstanding
the consideration of landing distance available, the selected position for =
the
threshold should not be such that the obstacle‑free surface to the
threshold is steeper than 3.3 per cent where the code number is 4 or steeper
than 5 per cent where the code number is 3.
CHAPTER 3
RUNWAY LENGTH CONSIDERATIONS
3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING TRE LENGTH OF RUNWAYS
Factors which have a
bearing on the runway length to be provided are:
b)=
weather, particularly
surface wind and temperature;
c)=
runway characteri=
stics
such as slope and surface condition; and
d)=
aerodrome location fact=
ors,
for example, aerodrome elevation which affects the barometric pressure and
topographical constraints.
3.=
1.2 &=
nbsp; The
relationship between runway length and aeroplane performance characteristic=
s is
discussed in Chapter 4. The greater the head wind down a runway the shorter
will be the runway length required by an aeroplane taking off or landing and
conversely, a tail wind increases the
length of runway required. The higher the temperature the longer will be the
runway required because higher temperatures create lower air densities resu=
lting
in lower output of thrust and reduced lift. The effect of runway slopes on
runway length requirements is discussed in detail in Appendix 2, however it=
is
evident that an aeroplane taking off on an uphill gradient requires more ru=
nway
length than it would on a level or downhill gradient; the specific amount
depends on the elevation of the aerodrome and the temperature. All other
factors being equal, the higher the elevation of the aerodrome with
correspondingly lower barometric pressure, the longer will be the runway
required. The runway length to be provided at an aerodrome may be constrain=
ed
by property boundaries or topographical features such as mountains, the sea=
or
steep valleys.
3.2 ACTUAL LENGTH OF RUNWAYS
Pr=
imary
runways
3.=
2.1 &=
nbsp; Except
where a runway is associated with a stopway and/or clearway, the actual run=
way
length to be provided for a primary runway should be adequate to meet the
operational requirements of the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended=
and
should be not less than the longest length determined by applying the
corrections for local conditions to the operations and performance
characteristics of the relevant aeroplanes. This requirement does not
necessarily mean providing for operations by the critical aeroplanes at its=
maximum
mass.
3.=
2.2 &=
nbsp; Both
take‑off and landing requirements need to be considered when determin=
ing the length of runway to be provided and t=
he
need for operations to be conducted in both directions of the runway. Local
conditions that may need to be considered include elevation, temperature,
runway slope, humidity and the runway surface characteristics.
3.=
2.3 &=
nbsp; When
performance data on aeroplanes for which the runway is intended are not kno=
wn,
the actual length of a primary runway may be determined by application of
general correction factors as described in 3.5.
Se=
condary
runways
3.=
2.4 &=
nbsp; The
length of a secondary runway should be determined similarly to primary runw=
ays
except that it needs only to be adequate for those aeroplanes which require=
to
use that secondary runway in addition to the other runway or runways in ord=
er
to obtain a usability factor of at least 95 per cent.
3.=
2.5 &=
nbsp; Flight
manuals providing data on aeroplane operational requirements and performance
characteristics are available for most modern aeroplanes. Aeroplane perform=
ance curves and tables have also been develope=
d for
basic runway planning purposes. Information on these aeroplane performance
curves and tables is given in Appendix 3.
3.3 RUNWAYS WITH STOPWAYS AND/OR CLEARWAYS
3.=
3.1 &=
nbsp; Where
a runway is associated with a stopway or clearway, an actual runway length =
less
than that resulting from application of 3.2.2 or 3.2.3, as appropriate, may=
be
considered satisfactory, but in such a case any combination of runway, stop=
way
and/or clearway provided should permit compliance with the operational
requirements for take off and landing of the aeroplanes the runway is
intended to serve.
3.=
3.2 &=
nbsp; The
decision to provide a stopway and/or a clearway as an alternative to an
increased length of runway will depend on the physical characteristics of t=
he
area beyond the runway end and on the operating performance requirements of=
the
prospective aeroplanes. The runway, stopway and clearway lengths to be prov=
ided
are determined by the aeroplane take‑off performance, but a check sho=
uld
also be made of the landing distance required by the aeroplanes using the
runway to ensure that adequate runway length is provided for landing. The
length of a clearway, however, cannot exceed half the length of take‑=
off
run available.
3.4 CALCULATION OF DECLARED DISTANCES
3.=
4.1 &=
nbsp; Introduction
of stopways and clearways and the use of displaced thresholds on runways has
created a need for accurate information to be declared in respect of the
various physical distances available and suitable for the landing and take&=
#8209;off
of aeroplanes. To give effect to this need in understandable meaning, the t=
erm
"declared distances" is used with the following four distances
associated with a particular runway:
a) Ta=
ke‑off
run available (TORA), i.e. the length of runway declared available and suit=
able
for the ground run of an aeroplane taking off.
a) Ta=
ke‑off
distance available (TODA), i.e. the length of the take‑off run availa=
ble
plus the length of the clearway, if provided.
b) Accelera=
te
stop distance available (ASDA), i.e. the length of the takeoff run available
plus the length of the stopway, if provided.
d) Landing
distance available (LDA), i.e. the length of runway which is declared avail=
able
and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing.
3.=
4.2 &=
nbsp; Annex
14, Volume I, calls for the calculation of declared distances for a runway
intended for use by international commercial air transport, and Annex 15 ca=
lls
for the reporting of declared distances for each direction of the runway in=
the
Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP). Figure 3‑1 illustrates
typical cases and Figure 3‑2 shows a tabulation of declared distances=
.
3.4.3 &=
nbsp; Where
a runway is not provided with a stopWay or clearway and the threshold is
located at the extremity of the runway, the four declared distances should
normally' be equal to the length of the runway as shown in Figure 3‑1=
A.
3.4.4 &=
nbsp; Where
a runway is provided with a clearway (CWY), then the TODA will include the
length of clearway as shown in Figure 3‑1B.
3.4.5 &=
nbsp; Where
a runway is provided with a stopway (SWY), then the ASDA will include the
length of stopway as shown in Figure 3‑1C.
3.4.6 &=
nbsp; Where
a runway has a displaced threshold, then the LDA will be reduced by the
distance the threshold is displaced as shown in Figure 3‑1D. A displa=
ced
threshold affects only the LDA for approaches made to that threshold; all
declared distances for operations in the reciprocal direction are unaffecte=
d.
3.4.7 &=
nbsp; Figures
3‑1B through 3‑1D illustrate a runway provided with a clearway,=
a stopway
or having a displaced threshold. Where more than one of these features exist
then more than one of the declared distances will be modified ‑ but t=
he
modification will follow the same principle illustrated. Figures 3‑1E=
and
3‑1F illustrate two situations where all these features exist.
3.4.8 &=
nbsp; A
suggested format for providing information on declared distances is given
in.Figure 3‑2. If a runway direction cannot be used for take‑of=
f or
landing, or both, because it is operationally forbidden, then this should be
declared and the words "not usable" or the abbreviation "NT
entered.
3.4.9 &=
nbsp; Where
provision of a runway end safety area may involve encroachment in areas whe=
re
it would be particularly prohibitive to implement, and the appropriate
authority considers a runway end safety area essential, consideration may h=
ave
to be given to reducing some of the declared distances.
![](3D"EAC139-9body.files/image002.jpg")
(A=
ll
above declared distances are illustrated for operations from left to right)=
Figure 3‑1. Illustration of declared distances
![](3D"EAC139-9body.files/image004.jpg")
Figure 3‑2. Determination of declared distances
3.5 RUNWAY LENGTH CORRECTIONS FOR ELEVATION, TEMPERATURE AND SLOPE
3.=
5.1 &=
nbsp; As
stated in 3.2.3, when the appropriate flight manual is not available the ru=
nway
length must be determined by applying general correction factors. As a first
step, a basic length should be selected for the runway adequate to meet the
operational requirements of the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended.
This basic length is a runway length selected for aerodrome planning purpos=
es
which is required for take‑off or landing under standard atmospheric
conditions for zero elevation, zero wind and zero runway slope.
3.=
5.2 &=
nbsp; The
basic length selected for the runway should be increased at the rate of 7 p=
er
cent per
3.=
5.3 &=
nbsp; The
length of runway determined under 3.5.2 should be further increased at the =
rate
of 1 per cent for every 1'C by which the aerodrome reference temperature
exceeds the temperature in the standard atmosphere for the aerodrome elevat=
ion.
If, however, the total correction for elevation and temperature exceeds 35 =
per
cent, the required corrections should be obtained by means of a specific st=
udy.
The operational characteristics of certain aeroplanes may indicate that the=
se
correction constants for elevation and temperature are not appropriate, and
that they may need to be modified by results of aeronautical study based up=
on
conditi6ns existing at the particular site and the operating requirements of
such aeroplanes.
3.=
5.4 &=
nbsp; Where
the basic length determined by take‑off requirements is
3.5.5 &=
nbsp; At
aerodromes where temperature and humidity are both high, some addition to t=
he
runway length determined under 3.5.4 may be necessary, even though it is not
possible to give exact figures for the increased lengths required.
Examples of the applica=
tion
of runway length corrections
3.5.6 The following exa=
mples
illustrate the application of the runway length corrections.
Example 1
a) Data:
|
1) |
runway length required for landing at sea level in standard
atmospheric conditions |
|
|
|
|
|
|
2) |
runway length required for take‑off at a level site at sea l=
evel
in standard atmospheric conditions |
|
|
|
|
|
|
3) |
aerodrome elevation |
|
|
|
|
|
|
4) |
aerodrome reference
temperature |
24 ºC |
|
5) |
temperature in the
standard atmosphere for |
=
14.025
ºC |
|
|
|
=
|
|
6) |
runway slope |
=
0.5% |
b) Corrections to runway take‑off length:
2) <=
/span>runway
take‑off length corrected for elevation and temperature =3D
[ 1 76=
0 × (24 - 14.025) × 0.01 ] + 1 760 =3D =
&nb=
sp; =
&nb=
sp; 1
=
3) runway take‑off length corrected for
elevation, temperature and slope =3D
[ 1 936 × 0.5 × 0.10 ] +=
1
936 =3D =
&nb=
sp; =
&nb=
sp; =
2
c) =
Co=
rrection
to runway landing length:
[ 2 100 × 0.07 × 150 / 300] + 2 100 =3D =
&nb=
sp; =
&nb=
sp; =
d)=
Actual runway length =3D
Example 2
a) =
Da=
ta:
|
1) |
runway length required for landing at sea level in standard
atmospheric conditions |
|
|
|
|
|
|
2) |
runway length required for take‑off at a level site at sea l=
evel
in standard atmospheric conditions |
|
|
|
|
|
|
3) |
aerodrome elevation |
|
|
|
|
|
|
4) |
aerodrome reference
temperature |
24 ºC |
|
5) |
temperature in the
standard atmosphere for |
=
14.025
ºC |
|
|
|
=
|
|
6) |
runway slope |
=
0.5% =
|
b) =
Co=
rrection
to runway take‑off length:
1) runway take‑off l=
ength
corrected for elevation =3D
2) <=
/span>runway
take‑off length corrected for elevation and temperature =3D
[ 2 587 <=
/span>× (24 - 14.025) × 0.01 ] + 2 587 =3D &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; &=
nbsp; &nbs=
p; 2
=
3) runway take‑off length corrected for
elevation, temperature and slope =3D
[ 2 845 0=
. 5 × 0.10 ] +
2 845 =3D =
&nb=
sp; =
&nb=
sp; =
2
c) =
Co=
rrection
to runway landing length:
[ 2 100 × 0.07 × 150 / 300 ] + 2 100 =3D =
&nb=
sp; =
&nb=
sp; =
d)=
Actual runway length =3D
CHAPTER 4
AEROPLANE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS AFFECTNG
RUNWAY LENGTH
4.1 OPERATIONAL TERMS
4.=
1 &=
nbsp; Before
discussing the relationship between aeroplane performance parameters
and
runway length requirements it is necessary to explain the following operati=
onal
te=
rms:
a)
b)=
Take‑off safety s=
peed
(V2) is the minimum speed at which the pilot is allowed to climb
attaining a height of
c)
d) Lift&=
#8209;off
speed (VLOF) in terms of calibrated airspeed, is the speed at
which the aeroplane first becomes airborne.
4.2 TAKE‑OFF LENGT9 REQUIREMENT
4.=
2.1 &=
nbsp; The
aeroplane performance operating limitations require a length which is enoug=
h to
ensure that the aeroplane can, after starting a take‑off, either be
brought safely to a stop or complete the take‑off safely. For the pur=
pose
of discussion it is supposed that the runway, stopway and clearway lengths
provided at the aerodrome are only just adequate for the aeroplane requiring
the longest take‑off and accelerate‑stop distances, taking into
account its take‑off mass, runway characteristics and ambient atmosph=
eric
conditions. Under these circumstances, there is for each take‑off a
speed, called the decision speed (V1); below this speed the take=
‑off
must be abandoned if an engine fails, while above it the take‑off mus=
t be
completed. A very long take‑off run and take‑off distance would=
be
required to complete a take‑off when an engine fails before the decis=
ion
speed is reached because of the insufficient speed and the reduced power
available. There would be no difficulty in stopping in the remaining accele=
rate
stop distance available provided action is taken immediately. In these
circumstances the correct course of action would be to abandon the takeR=
09;off.
4.=
2.2 &=
nbsp; On
the other hand, if an engine fails after the decision speed is reached the
aeroplane will have sufficient speed and power available to complete the ta=
ke‑off
safely in the remaining take‑off distance available. However, because=
of
the high speed there would be difficulty in stopping the aeroplane in the
remaining accelerate‑stop distance available.
4.=
2.3 &=
nbsp; The
decision speed is not a fixed speed for any aeroplane, but can be selected =
by
the pilot within limits to suit the accelerate‑stop and take‑off
distance available, aeroplane take‑off mass, runway characteristics, =
and
ambient atmospheric conditions at the aerodrome. Normally, a higher decision
speed is selected as the accelerate‑stop distance available increases=
.
4.=
2.4 &=
nbsp; A
variety of combinations of accelerate‑stop distances required and tak=
e‑off
distances required can be obtained to accommodate a particular aeroplane ta=
king
into account the aeroplane take‑off mass, runway characteristics, and
ambient atmospheric conditions. Each combination requires its particular le=
ngth
of take‑oft run.
4.=
2.5 &=
nbsp; The
most familiar case is where the decision speed is such that the take‑=
off
distance required is equal to the accelerate‑stop distance required; =
this
value is known as the balanced field length. Where stopway and clearway are=
not
provided, these distances are both equal to the runway length. However, if
landing distance is for the moment ignored, runway is not essential for the
whole of the balanced field length, as the take‑off run required is, =
of
course, less than the balanced field length. The balanced field length can,
therefore, be provided by a runway supplemented by an equal length of clear=
way
and stopway, instead of wholly as a runway. If the runway is used for take&=
#8209;off
in both directions, an equal length of clearway and stopway has to be provi=
ded
at each runway end. The saving in runway length is, therefore, bought at the
cost of a greater overall length.
4.=
2.6 &=
nbsp; In
case economic considerations preclude the provision of stopway and, as a re=
sult
only runway and clearway are to be provided, the runway length (neglecting
landing requirements) should be equal to the accelerate‑stop distance
required or the take‑off run required whichever is the greater. The t=
ake‑off
distance available will be the length of the runway plus the length of
clearway.
4.=
2.7 &=
nbsp; The
minimum runway length and the maximum stopway or clearway length to be prov=
ided
may be determined as follows, from the data in the Aeroplane Flight Manual =
for
the
aeroplane considered to be critical from the view point of runway length
requirements:
a) if=
a
stopway is economically possible, the lengths to be provided are those for =
the
balanced field length. The runway length is the take‑off run required=
or
the landing distance required, whichever is the greater. If the accelerate&=
#8209;stop
distance required is greater than the runway length so determined, the exce=
ss
may be provided as stopway, usually at each end of the runway. In addition,=
a
clearway of the same length as the stopway must also be provided;
b) if a sto=
pway
is not to be provided, the runway length is the landing distance required, =
or
if it is greater, the accelerate‑stop distance required which corresp=
onds
to the lowest practical value of the decision speed. The excess of the take=
‑off
distance required over the runway length may be provided as clearway, usual=
ly
at each end of the runway.
4.=
2.8 &=
nbsp; In
addition to the above consideration the concept of clearways in certain
circumstances can be applied to a situation where the take‑off distan=
ce
required for all engines operating exceeds that required for the engine fai=
lure
case.
4.=
2.9 &=
nbsp; The
economy of a stopway can be entirely lost if, after each usage, it must be =
regraded
and compacted. Therefore, it should be designed to withstand at least a cer=
tain
number of loadings of the aeroplane which the stopway is intended to serve
without inducing structural damage to the aeroplane.
4.=
2.10 &=
nbsp; Taking
as a schematic illustration (Figure 4‑1 W) the case of an aeroplane
standing at the entrance end A of a runway, the pilot starts his take‑=
;off,
the aeroplane accelerates and approaches the decision speed (V1)
point B. A sudden and complete failure of an engine is assumed to occur and=
is
recognised by the pilot as the decision speed (V1) is attained. =
The
pilot can either:
- brake until the aerop=
lane
comes to a standstill at point Y (the accelerate‑stop distance); or
-
continue accelerating until he reaches the rotation speed %), point C, at w=
hich
time he rotates and becomes airborne at the lift‑off speed (VLOF=
),
point D, after which the aeroplane reaches the end of the take‑off ru=
n,
point X, and continues to the
4.=
2.11 &=
nbsp; Figure
4‑1 (b) illustrates a normal all‑engines operating case where d=
'1
and
d&=
#8217;3
are similar to d1 =
and d3,
respectively, in Figure 4‑1 (a).
4.=
2.12 &=
nbsp; The
engine‑inoperative take‑off and accelerate‑stop distances
will vary according to the selection of the decision speed (V1).=
If
the decision speed is reduced, the distance to point B (Figure 4‑1 (a=
))
is reduced, as is the accelerate‑stop distance; but the take‑off
run and take‑off distances are increased as a larger part of the take=
‑off
manoeuvre is carried out with an engine inoperative. Figure 4‑2
illustrates the probable relationship which may exist between the accelerat=
e‑stop
distances, the take‑off distances, and the take‑off runs with
respect to variations in the decision speed, (V1), within the li=
mits
stated in 4.1.1
4.=
2.13 &=
nbsp; The
take‑off performance characteristics of a given aeroplane will not
necessarily encompass the range of decision speeds shown in Figure 4‑=
2.
Rather, under specified conditions, an individual aeroplane may be found to=
be
restricted to within one of the areas indicated by the horizontal brackets =
a, b
or c. In the case illustrated by bracket a, the take‑off distance wit=
h an
engine inoperative is critical. The logical selection of V1, poi=
nt
(1), would be to have it equal V2 or VR depending on =
the
aeroplane's take‑off characteristics. In the case illustrated by brac=
ket
b, the accelerate‑stop distance is critical from the V2 sp=
eed
down to a point where ground controllability may become critical. The logic=
al
selection of V1 would be to keep it as low as is practical, point
(2). In the case illustrated by bracket c, which is the more general case, =
the
accelerate‑stop distance is critical at V, speeds near the V2 speed a=
nd
the take‑off distance is critical at speeds near the minimum speed for
control liability his case the V1 speed selected is usually the optimu=
m,
i.e. the V 1 at which the two distances are equal, point (3). If the all=
209;engines
operating take‑off distance is critical in one or more of the cases
cited, the range of possible V1 speeds is somewhat enlarged beca=
use
that distance is independent of the V1 speed.
![](3D"EAC139-9body.files/image006.gif=)
4.2.14&nb=
sp; It
will be seen that the total length required is the least in the case of the
optimum decision speed (V,), and this is always true. Normally, therefore, =
the
runway should be constructed to this length. However, the part of the
accelerate‑stop distance not required for the take‑off run (the
length B in Figure 4‑3) will be used very rarely and may therefore be
constructed more economically than the part A required for take‑off r=
un,
i.e. the runway itself. Further, during take‑off, the length B + C wi=
ll
only be flown over during the initial climb to the height specified in Annex 6 and is not expected to bear the mass of =
the
aircraft; it requires only to be clear of obstacles.
4.= 2.15 &= nbsp; In certain circumstances, the construction of runways with surfaces such as stopways and clearways may prove to be more advantageous than the construct= ion of conventional runways. The choice between a solution involving a conventi= onal runway and one in which a combination of these surfaces is used, will depen= d on the local physical and economic conditions; size and clearances of the site, soil characteristics, possibility of acquiring land, plans for future development, nature and cost of av= ailable materials, time interval required for carrying out the work, acceptable lev= el of maintenance charges, etc. In particular, the construction of stopways at each end of the runway (since there are normally two directions for take= 209;off) may frequently be an economical first stage in the extension of an existing runway. The stopways, which are not used for landings and are used by the aeroplane only in exceptional cases during take‑off, can frequently be provided without considerable expenditure, and their establishment is operationally equivalent for the aeroplane to a lengthening of the runway.<= o:p>
![](3D"EAC139-9body.files/image008.gif=)
4.=
2.16 &=
nbsp; In
order to choose between the non‑conventional runway and the preferred
conventional runway, it is necessary to determine the proportions of clearw=
ay
or clearway/stopway which may be provided. Figure 4‑3 illustrates how
this can be done for a particular aeroplane under one set of conditions of
altitude, temperature, take‑off mass, etc. As shown above, the distan=
ce
for the take‑off run, the take‑off distance and the accelerate&=
#8209;stop
distance for a particular aeroplane during take‑off depend on the cho=
ice
of the decision speed V1. Within a certain range (as noted in 4.1.1) any va=
lue
of V 1 can be chosen and consequently many combinations of runway, stopway =
and
clearway would appear to be possible. The minimum requirements for the desi=
gn
of a non conventional runway will normally include a runway and a
clearway, or a runway and a combination clearway/stopway, depending on the =
V,
speeds used. This is illustrated in Figure 4‑3.
![3D"=](3D"EAC139-9body.files/image010.gif")
Fi=
gure
4‑4
4.2.17 =
&nb=
sp;
Ex=
pansion
of a conventional runway to a non‑conventional runway to accommodate =
an
increase in mass of the critical aeroplane is illustrated in Figure 4‑=
;4.
In Figure 4‑4 (a), the critical aeroplane uses the optimum V, speed,
point 3, at mass W<=
sub>0
on the existing runway.
With the mass increased to W1, the optimum V1 speed is
somewhat increased, point 3'. The mass increase is limited to that which
results in take‑off run (d1) equal to the length of runway.
The additional take‑off distance and accelerate‑stop distance can be accommodated by a combination
clearway/stopway. In Figure 4‑4 (b), two cases are cited. In the first
case, the aeroplane's V1 speed is at point 1. The new V, speed, point 1', w=
ould
increase if the initial climb out speed (V2) increased due to the
mass change. The mass increase is limited to that which would result in a t=
ake‑off
run (dl) at mass W1 equal to the take‑off dista=
nce
(d3) at mass W<=
sub>0.
The increase in take=
209;off
distance can be accommodated by a clearway. In the second case, the aeropla=
ne's
V, speed is at point 2. The V1 speed, point V1 would
probably be held constant. The mass increase would be limited by the increa=
sed
take‑off distance d3 at mass W1 if a clearway w=
as
not to be provided. The increase in accelerate‑stop distance can be
accommodated by a stopway. Note that any further increase in mass will requ=
ire
the use of a combined clearway/stopway. The effect caused by the all‑=
engines‑operating
case can readily be seen by a comparison of Figure 4‑3, (a) and (b).
Lower values of V1 are of no interest since they result in both
greater takeoff run and take‑off distance.
![](3D"EAC139-9body.files/image012.gif")
4.=
2.18 &=
nbsp; The
runway length determined from the take‑off performance charts is the
greater of either:
b) =
115
per cent of the take‑off distance with all engines operative.
4.3 LANDING LENGTH REQUIREMENT
4.=
3.1 &=
nbsp; Although
landing lengths are normally not critical, aeroplane landing performance ch=
arts
should be consulted to check that runway length requirements for take‑=
;off
provide adequate runway length for landing. In general the landing length is
determined so as to provide for an aeroplane landing, after clearing all
obstacles in the approach path by a safe margin, and stopping safely. Allow=
ance
shall be made for variations in the approach and landing techniques of
particular aeroplanes, if such allowance has not been made in the schedulin=
g of
performance data. The runway length determined from a landing performance c=
hart
is the aeroplane's landing distance required divided by 0.6. Where the leng=
th
of runway required for landing is greater than that required for the take&#=
8209;off
run, this will determine the minimum length of runway required.
CHAPTER 5
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
5.1 RUNWAYS
Wi=
dth
5.1.1 &=
nbsp; The
width of a runway should be not less than the appropriate dimension
specified in the following tabulation:
|
Code Number |
Code letter |
|||||
|
A |
B |
C |
D |
E |
F |
|
|
1* |
18m |
18m |
23m |
- |
- |
- |
|
2* |
23m |
23m |
30m |
- |
- |
- |
|
3=
|
30m |
30m |
30m |
45m |
- |
- |
|
4=
|
- |
- |
45m |
45m |
45m |
60m |
|
* :=
The
width of a precision approach runway should be not less than 30m where th=
e code number is 1 or 2 |
Lo=
ngitudinal
slopes
5.=
1.2 &=
nbsp; The
slope computed by dividing the difference between the maximum and minimum
elevation along the runway centre line by the runway length should not exce=
ed:
1 per cent where the code number is 3 or 4; and
2 per cent where the co=
de
number is 1 or 2.
5.1.3 &=
nbsp; Along
no portion of a runway should the longitudinal slope exceed:
1.25 per cent where the
code number is 4 except that for the first and last quarter of the length of
the runway the longitudinal slope should not exceed 0.8 per cent;
1.5 per cent where the =
code
number is 3 except that for the first and last quarter of the length of a
precision approach runway category II or III the longitudinal slope should =
not
exceed 0.8 per cent; and
2 per cent where the code number is 1 or 2.
Lo=
ngitudinal
slope changes
5.=
1.4 &=
nbsp; Where
slope changes cannot be avoided, a slope change between two consecutive slo=
pes
should not exceed:
2 =
per
cent where the code number is 1 or 2.
Si=
ght
distance
5.=
1.5 &=
nbsp; The
transition from one slope to another should be accomplished by a curved sur=
face
with a rate of change not exceeding:
0.1 per cent per
0.2 per cent per
0.4 per cent per
5.=
1.6 &=
nbsp; Where
slope changes cannot be avoided, they should be such that there will be an
unobstructed line of sight from:
any point
any point
any point
Di=
stance
between slope changes
5.=
1.7 &=
nbsp; Undulations
or appreciable changes in slopes located close together along a runway shou=
ld
be avoided. The distance between the points of intersection of two successi=
ve
curves should not be less than:
a) th=
e sum
of the absolute numerical values of the corresponding slope changes multipl=
ied
by the appropriate value as follows:
b)
whichever is greater.
5.=
1.8 &=
nbsp; The
following example illustrates how the distance between slope ~hanges is
to=
be
determined (see Figure 5‑1):
D =
for
a runway where the code number is 3 should be at least
15 000 (|x&=
#8209;y| +=
|y&=
#8209;z|) =
m
| |y&=
#8209;z| b=
eing
the absolute numerical value of y‑z As=
suming x =3D +0.01 th=
en |x-=
y| =
=3D
0.015 |y&=
#8209;z| =
=3D
0.01 To comply with the
specifications, D should be not less than: 15 000 (0.015 + 0.01) m=
, that is, 15 000 =
× 0=
.025
=3D Figure 5‑1. Profile on centre line of runway Tr=
ansverse
slopes 5.=
1.9 &=
nbsp; To
promote the most rapid drainage of water, the runway surface should, if
practicable, be cambered except where a single crossfall from high to low in
the direction of the wind most frequently associated with rain would ensure
rapid drainage. The transverse slope should ideally be: 1.5 per cent where the code letter is C, D or E; and 2 per cent where the co=
de
letter is A or B; but in any event should not exceed 1.5 per cent or 2 per cent, as
applicable, nor be less than 1 per cent except at runway or taxiway
intersections where flatter slopes may be necessary. For a cambered surface=
the
transverse slope on each side of the centre line should be symmetrical. On =
wet
runways with cross‑wind conditions the problem of aquaplaning from po=
or
drainage is apt to beaccentuated. 5.1.10 &=
nbsp; The
transverse slope should be substantially the same throughout the length of a
runway except at an intersection with another runway or a taxiway where an =
even
transition should be provided taking account of the need for adequate drain=
age.
Guidance on transverse slope =
is
given in Doc 9157, Aerodrome Design Manual, Part
3. ‑ Pavements. Combined slopes 5.1.11 &=
nbsp; When
a runway is planned that will combine the extreme values for the longitudin=
al
slopes and changes in slope combined with extreme transverse slopes, a study
should be made to ensure that the resulting surface profile will not hamper=
the
operation of aeroplanes. Strength![](3D"EAC139-9body.files/image014.jpg")
5.1.12 &=
nbsp; A
runway should be capable of withstanding the traffic of aeroplanes the runw=
ay
is intended to serve. For details of pavement design methods refer to Part 3 of the Aerodrome Design Manual<=
u>.
Surface
5..1.13 &=
nbsp; The
surface of a runway should be constructed without irregularities that would
result in loss in braking action or otherwise adversely affect the takeR=
09;
off or landing of an aeroplane. Surface irregularities may adversely affect=
the
take‑off or landing of an aeroplane by causing excessive bouncing,
pitching, vibration, or other difficulties in the control of an aeroplane.
Additional guidance is included in Part of the
5.1.14 &=
nbsp; In
adopting tolerances for runway surface irregularities, the following standa=
rd
of construction is achievable for short distances of
Except across the crown of a camber or across drainage channels, the
finished surface of the wearing course is to be of such regularity that when
tested with a
5.1.15 =
Caution
should also be exercised when inserting runway lights or drainage runway
surfaces to ensure that adequate smoothness of the surface is maintained.
5.1.16 &=
nbsp; The
operation of aircraft and differential settlement of surface foundations wi=
ll
eventually lead to increases in surface irregularities. Small deviations in=
the
above tolerances will not seriously hamper aircraft operations. In general
isolated irregularities of the order of
5.1.17 &=
nbsp; Determination
of the dynamic loads on an aircraft during the landing or take‑off ru=
n on
an uneven runway surface can of course be accomplished by measuring the act=
ual
response of an aircraft rolling over that surface. Tests by one State have
shown that use of a ground‑run simulation model to determine the forc=
es
acting on an aircraft undercarriage when rolling over an actually measured =
or
planned surface profile results in a very useful tool for objectively judgi=
ng
the quality of a runway or taxiway surface. With this method the effects of
modifications of the surface on aircraft response can be analysed before th=
ose
modifications have been carried out, thus eliminating many uncertainties ab=
out
the results, and the modifica=
tions
to be proposed can be assessed from a cost‑benefit point of view. In =
the
simulation model, acceptability of surface unevenness is related to the loa=
ds
acting on the undercarriage of the aircraft which are considered critical f=
or
this purpose.
5.1.18 &=
nbsp; Deformation
of the runway with time may also increase the possibility of the formation =
of
water pools. Pools as shallow as approximately
Surface texture
5..1.19 &=
nbsp; The
surface of a paved runway shall be so constructed as to provide good fricti=
on
characteristics when the runway is wet. Evaluation and operational experien=
ce
have shown that properly engineered and maintained asphaltic or portland ce=
ment
concrete surfaces meet these criteria. This does not preclude the use of ot=
her
materials which meet these criteria.
5.1.20 . Measurements of the friction characteristics of a new or
resurfaced runway should be made with a continuous friction measuring device
using self‑wetting features in order to assure that the design object=
ives
with respect to its friction characteristics have been achieved. Guidance on
friction characteristics of new runway surfaces is given in Attachment A, Section 7 of Annex 14, Volume I.
Additional guidance is included in the Airport Se=
rvices
Manual, Part 2.
5.1.21 &=
nbsp; The
average surface texture depth of a new surface should be not less than
5.1.22 &=
nbsp; When
the surface is grooved or scored, the grooves or scorings should be either
perpendicular to the runway centre line or parallel to non‑perpendicu=
lar
transverse joints, where applicable. Guidance on methods for improving the
runway surface texture is given in Part 3 of the =
Aerodrome
Design Manual.
5.2
RUNWAY SHOULDERS
General
5.2.1 &=
nbsp; Runway
shoulders should be provided for a runway where the code letter is D or E, =
and
the runway width is less than
5.2.2 &=
nbsp; The
shoulder of a runway or stopway should be prepared or constructed so as to
minimise any hazard to an aeroplane running off the runway or stopway. Some
guidance is given in the following paragraphs on certain special problems w=
hich
may arise, and on the further question of measures to avoid the ingestion of
loose stones or other objects by turbine engines.
5.2.3 &=
nbsp; In
some cases, the bearing strength of the natural ground in the strip may be
sufficient, without special preparation, to meet the requirements for
shoulders. Where special preparation is necessary, the method used will dep=
end
on local soil conditions and the mass of the aeroplanes the runway is inten=
ded
to serve. Soil tests will help in determining the best method of improvement
(e.g. drainage, stabilisation, surfacing, light paving).
5.2.4 &=
nbsp; Attention
should also be paid when designing shoulders to prevent the ingestion of st=
ones
or other objects by turbine engines. Similar considerations apply here to t=
hose
which are discussed for the margins of taxiways in the Aerodrome
Design Manual, Part 2. ‑ Taxiways, Aprons and Holding Bays,
both as to the special measures which may be necessary and as to the distan=
ce
over which such special measures, if required, should be taken.
5.2.5 &=
nbsp; Where
shoulders have been treated specially, either to provide the required beari=
ng
strength or to prevent the presence of stones or debris, difficulties may a=
rise
because of a lack of visual contrast between the runway surface and that of=
the
adjacent strip. This difficulty can be overcome either by providing a good
visual contrast in the surfacing of the runway or strip or by providing a
runway side stripe marking.
5.2.6 &=
nbsp; Guidance
on characteristics and treatment of runway shoulders is given in
Part 2 of the=
Aerodrome
Design Manual.
5.2.7 &=
nbsp; The
runway shoulders should extend symmetrically on each side of the runway so =
that
the over‑all width of the runway and its shoulders is not less than <=
st1:metricconverter
ProductID=3D"60 m" w:st=3D"on">60 m.
Slopes
5.2.8 &=
nbsp; The
surface of the shoulder that abuts the runway should be flush with the surf=
ace
of the runway and its transverse slope should not exceed 2.5 per cent.
Strength
5.2.9 &=
nbsp; A
runway shoulder should be prepared or constructed so as to be capable, in t=
he
event of an aeroplane running off the runway, of supporting the aeroplane
without inducing structural damage to the aeroplane and of supporting ground
vehicles which may operate on the' shoulder.
5.3 RUNWAY STRIPS
Ge=
neral
A runway and any associ=
ated
stopways shall be included in a strip.
Le=
ngth
A strip should extend,
before the threshold and beyond the end of the runway or stopway, for a
distance of at least:
Wi=
dth
5.=
3.3 &=
nbsp; A
strip including a precision approach runway shall, wherever practicable, ex=
tend
laterally for a distance of at least:
on each side of the cen=
tre
line of the runway and its extended centre line throughout the length of the
strip.
5.=
3.4 &=
nbsp; A
strip including a non‑precision approach runway should extend lateral=
ly
to a distance of at least: