HUMAN FACTOR AND
CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT TRAINING REQUIREMENTS
1.
Purpose. This
Advisory Circular (EAC) presents requirements for developing, implementing,
reinforcing, and assessing crew resource management (CRM) training for flight
crewmembers and other personnel essential to flight safety. CRM training is
designed to become an integral part of training and operations. These
requirements are intended for Title Egyptian Regulations Parts 91, 121, 139,
145, 171, 172, 173, 174 and 301 certificate holders besides security programs
of Egyptian Regulations Parts 107 and 108
who are required by regulation to provide CRM training for pilots and
cabin crews, maintenance resource management (MRM) training for aircraft maintenance
personnel, dispatch resource management (DRM) training for aircraft dispatchers
and team resource management (TRM) for ATC personnel in addition to human
factor training for security and accident investigation personnel. This EAC
presents one way, but not necessarily the only way, that CRM training may be
addressed. CRM training focuses on situation awareness, communication skills,
teamwork, task allocation, and decision making within a comprehensive framework
of standard operating procedures (SOP).
2. Related regulations.
ECAR Parts 91, 107, 108, 121, 145, 171, 172, 173, 174 and 301.
3. Definitions. The human factors safety challenge and
the CRM training response may be defined as follows:
a. Human Factors. The multidisciplinary field of human
factors is devoted to optimizing human performance and reducing human error. It
incorporates the methods and principles of the behavioral and social sciences,
engineering, and physiology. It is the applied science that studies people
working together in concert with machines. It embraces variables that influence
individual performance and variables that influence team or crew performance.
It is recognized that inadequate system design or inadequate operator training
can contribute to individual human error that leads to system performance
degradation. Further, it is recognized that inadequate design and management of
crew tasks can contribute to group errors that lead to system performance
degradation.
b. CRM Training. The application of team management
concepts in the flight deck environment was initially known as cockpit resource
management. As CRM training evolved to include cabin crews, maintenance
personnel and others, the phrase “Crew Resource Management” was adopted.
(1) As used in this AC,
CRM refers to the effective use of all available resources: human resources,
hardware, and information. Other groups routinely working with the cockpit
crew, who are involved in decisions required to operate a flight safely, are
also essential participants in an effective CRM process. These groups include
but are not limited to:
(a) Aircraft dispatchers.
(b) Cabin Crew.
(c) Maintenance
personnel.
(d) Air traffic
controllers.
(e) Security personnel
(f) Accident investigation personnel
(2) CRM training is one
way of addressing the challenge of optimizing the human/machine interface and
accompanying interpersonal activities. These activities include team building
and maintenance, information transfer, problem solving, decisionmaking,
maintaining situation awareness, and dealing with automated systems. CRM
training is comprised of three components: initial indoctrination/awareness,
recurrent practice and feedback, and continual reinforcement.
3. Related reading material. International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) Annexes and documents related to human factors. This
document may be obtained from ICAO document sales unit, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada, 514-954-8022.
4. Background. Investigations into the causes of air
carrier accidents have shown that human error is a contributing factor in 60 to
80 percent of all air carrier incidents and accidents. Many problems
encountered by flight crews have very little to do with the technical aspects
of operating in a multi-person cockpit. Instead, problems are associated with
poor group decision making, ineffective communication, inadequate leadership,
and poor task or resource management. Pilot training programs historically
focused almost exclusively on the technical aspects of flying and on an
individual pilot’s performance; they did not effectively address crew
management issues that are also fundamental to safe flight.
5. The mission of CRM training. CRM training has been conceived to
prevent aviation accidents by improving crew performance through better crew
coordination.
6. Basic concepts of CRM. CRM training is based on an awareness
that a high degree of technical proficiency is essential for safe and efficient
operations. Demonstrated mastery of CRM concepts cannot overcome a lack of
proficiency. Similarly, high technical proficiency cannot guarantee safe
operations in the absence of effective crew coordination.
a. Experience has shown that lasting
behavior changes in any environment cannot be achieved in a short time, even if
the training is well designed. Trainees need awareness, practice and feedback,
and continuing reinforcement: in brief, time to learn attitudes and behaviors
that will endure. To be effective, CRM concepts must be permanently integrated
into all aspects of training and operations.
b. While there are various useful methods
in use in CRM training today, certain essentials are universal:
(1) CRM training is most effective within a
training program centered on clear, comprehensive SOPs.
(2) CRM training should focus on the
functioning of crewmembers as teams, not as a collection of technically
competent individuals.
(3) CRM training should
instruct crewmembers how to behave in ways that foster crew effectiveness.
(4) CRM training should provide
opportunities for crewmembers to practice the skills necessary to be effective
team leaders and team members.
(5) CRM training should
include effective team behaviors during normal, routine operations.
c. Good training for routine operations
can have a strong positive effect on how well individuals function during times
of high workload or high stress. During emergency situations, it is highly
unlikely (and probably undesirable) that any crewmember would take the time to
reflect upon his or her CRM training in order to choose the appropriate
behavior. But practice of desirable behaviors during times of low stress increases
the likelihood that emergencies will be handled effectively.
d. Effective CRM has the
following characteristics:
(1) CRM is a comprehensive system of
applying human factors concepts to improve crew performance.
(2) CRM embraces all operational personnel.
(3) CRM can be blended into all forms of
crew training.
(4) CRM concentrates on crewmembers’
attitudes and behaviors and their impact on safety.
(5) CRM uses the crew as the unit of
training.
(6) CRM is training that requires the
active participation of all crewmembers. It provides an opportunity for
individuals and crews to examine their own behavior, and to make decisions on
how to improve cockpit teamwork.
7. Fundamentals of CRM training
implementation. Research
programs and airline operational experience suggest that the greatest benefits
are achieved by adhering to the following practices:
a. Assess the status of
the organization before implementation. It
is important to know how widely CRM concepts are understood and practiced
before designing specific training. Surveys of crewmembers, management,
training, and standards personnel, observation of crews in line observations,
and analysis of incident/accident reports can provide essential data for
program designers.
b. Get commitment from
all managers, starting with senior managers. CRM programs are received much more positively by
operations personnel when senior managers, flight operations managers, and
flight standards officers conspicuously support CRM concepts and provide the
necessary resources for training. Flight operations manuals and training
manuals should embrace CRM concepts by providing crews with necessary policy
and procedures guidance centered on clear, comprehensive SOPs. A central CRM
concept is communication. It is essential that every level of management
support a safety culture in which communication is promoted by encouraging
appropriate questioning. It should be made perfectly clear in pilots’ manuals,
and in every phase of pilot training, that appropriate questioning is encouraged
and that there will be no negative repercussions for appropriate questioning of
one pilot’s decision or action by another pilot.
c. Customize the
training to reflect the nature and needs of the organization. Using knowledge of the state of the
organization, priorities should be established for topics to be covered,
including special issues, such as the effects of mergers or the introduction of
advanced technology aircraft. Other special issues might include topics
specific to the particular type of operation, such as the specific
characteristics that exist in commuter operations, in long-haul international
operations or night operations. This approach increases the relevance of
training for crewmembers.
d. Define the scope of
the program and an implementation plan. Institute
special CRM training for key personnel, including check airmen, supervisors,
and instructors. It is highly beneficial to provide training for these groups
before beginning training for crewmembers. CRM training may be expanded to combine
pilots, cabin crews, and aircraft dispatchers. It may also be expanded to
include maintenance personnel and other company team members, as appropriate.
It is also helpful to develop a long-term strategy for program implementation.
8. Components of CRM training. The topics outlined below have been
identified as critical components of effective CRM training. They do not
represent a fixed sequence of phases, each with a beginning and an end.
Ideally, each component is continually renewed at every stage of training.
a. Initial indoctrination/awareness.
(1) Indoctrination/awareness typically
consists of classroom presentations and focuses on communications and decision
making, interpersonal relations, crew coordination, leadership, and adherence
to SOPs, among others. In this component of CRM training, the concepts are
developed, defined, and related to the safety of line operations. This
component also provides a common conceptual framework and a common vocabulary
for identifying crew coordination problems.
(2) Indoctrination/awareness can be
accomplished by a combination of training methods. Lectures, audiovisual
presentations, discussion groups, role-playing exercises, computer-based
binstruction, and videotaped examples of good and poor team behavior are
commonly used methods.
(3) Initiating indoctrination/awareness
training requires the development of a curriculum that addresses CRM skills
that have been demonstrated to influence crew performance. To be most
effective, the curriculum should define the concepts involved and relate them
directly to operational issues that crews encounter. Many organizations have
found it useful to survey crewmembers. Survey data have helped identify
embedded attitudes regarding crew coordination. The data have also helped to
identify operational problems and to prioritize training issues.
(4) Effective indoctrination/awareness
training increases understanding of CRM concepts. That understanding, in turn,
often influences individual attitudes favorably regarding human factors issues.
Often the training also suggests more effective communication practices.
(5) It is important to
recognize that classroom instruction alone does not fundamentally alter
crewmember attitudes over the long term. The indoctrination/awareness training
should be regarded as a necessary first step towards effective crew performance
training.
b. Recurrent Practice and Feedback.
(1) CRM training must be included as a
regular part of the recurrent training requirement. Recurrent CRM training
should include classroom or briefing room refresher training to review and
amplify CRM components, followed by practice and feedback exercises, such as
LOFT, preferably with taped feedback; or a suitable substitute, such as
role-playing in a flight training device and taped feedback. It is recommended
that these recurrent CRM exercises take place with a full crew, each member
operating in his or her normal crew position. A complete crew should always be
scheduled, and every attempt should be made to maintain crew integrity.
Recurrent training LOFT, which includes CRM, should be conducted with current
line crews, and preferably not with instructors or check airmen as stand-ins.
(2) Recurrent training with performance
feedback allows participants to practice newly improved CRM skills and to
receive feedback on their effectiveness. Feedback has its greatest impact when
it comes from self-critique and from peers, together with guidance from a
facilitator with special training in assessment and debriefing techniques.
(3) The most effective feedback refers to
the coordination concepts identified in Indoctrination/ Awareness training or
in recurrent training. Effective feedback relates to specific behaviors.
Practice and feedback are best accomplished through the use of simulators or
training devices and videotape. Taped feedback, with the guidance of a
facilitator, is particularly effective because it allows participants to view
themselves from a third-person perspective. This view is especially compelling
in that strengths and weaknesses are captured on tape and vividly displayed. Stop
action, replay, and slow motion are some of the playback features available
during debriefing. Behavioral patterns and individual work styles are easily
seen, and appropriate adjustments are often self-evident.
c. Continuing Reinforcement.
(1) No matter how effective each curriculum
segment is (the classroom, the role-playing exercises, the LOFT, or the
feedback), one-time exposures are simply not sufficient. The attitudes and
norms that contribute to ineffective crew coordination may have developed over
a crewmember’s lifetime. It is unrealistic to expect a short training program
to reverse years of habits. To be maximally effective, CRM should be embedded
in every stage of training, and CRM concepts should be stressed in line
operations as well.
(2) CRM should become an inseparable part
of the organization’s culture.
(3) There is a common tendency to think of
CRM as training only for captains. This notion misses the essence of the CRM
training mission: the prevention of crew-related accidents. CRM training works
best in the context of the entire crew. Training exercises are most effective
if all crewmembers work together and learn together. In the past, much of the
flightcrew training has been segmented by crew position. This segmentation has
been effective for meeting certain training needs such as seat dependent
technical training and upgrade training, but segmentation is not appropriate
for most CRM training.
(4) Reinforcement can be
accomplished in many areas. Training such as joint cabin and cockpit crew
training in security can deal with many human factors issues. Joint training
with aircraft dispatchers, maintenance personnel, and gate agents can also
reinforce CRM concepts, and is required.
12. Minimum requirements for human
factor training curriculums. Details
are given in relevant parts of the Egyptian Civil Aviation Human Standards
Handbook (ECAHSH).
13. Specialized training in CRM
concepts. As CRM programs have
matured, some organizations have found it beneficial to develop and implement
additional courses dealing with issues specific to their operations.
a. After all current crewmembers have
completed the Initial Indoctrination/Awareness component of CRM training,
arrangements are needed to provide newly hired crewmembers with the same
material. A number of organizations have modified their CRM initial courses for
inclusion as part of the initial
training and qualification for new hire crewmembers.
b. Training for upgrading to captain
provides an opportunity for specialized training that deals with the human
factors aspects of command. Such training can be incorporated in the upgrade
process.
c. Training involving communications and
the use of automation can be developed for crews operating aircraft with
advanced technology cockpits, or for crews transitioning into them.
14. Assessment of CRM training. It is vital that each training program
be assessed to determine if CRM training is achieving its goals. Each
organization should have a systematic assessment process. Assessment should
track the effects of the training program so that critical topics for recurrent
training may be identified and continuous improvements may be made in all other
respects. Assessment of the training program should include observation and
feedback by program administrators and self-reports by participants using
standard survey methods.
a) The emphasis in this assessment process
should be on crew performance. The essential areas of CRM-related assessment
include communications, decision-making, team building and maintenance,
workload management, and situation awareness, always in balance with
traditional technical proficiency. An additional function of such assessment is
to determine the impact of CRM training and organization-wide trends in crew
performance.
b) For optimal assessment, data on
crewmembers’ attitudes and behavior should be collected before CRM
indoctrination and again at intervals after the last component of CRM training,
to determine both initial and enduring effects of the program. The goal should
be to obtain an accurate picture of the organization’s significant corporate
personality traits before formal adoption of CRM training, and to continue to
monitor those traits after implementation.
15. Instructor Requirements. A CRMI shall meet the minimum standards
contained in the relevant ECARs and should at least;
15.1 All CRMI shall
meet the following minimum standards:
a)
Have completed a basic instructional technique course.
b)
Have or have had commercial air transport experience as a flight crew member;
or a rated license for non-flight crew members; and
i)
Have successfully passed the Human Performance and Limitations (HPL)
examination; or
ii) If holding a License acceptable under ECAR 61,63,65 prior to the introduction of HPL into their syllabus, have completed a theoretical HPL course covering the whole syllabus of that course; or
iii)
Have theoretical experience in the subject of CRM or Human Factors training.
15.2
Notwithstanding 15.1, and when acceptable to the ECAA:
a)
A flight crew member holding a recent qualification as a CRM trainer may
continue to be a CRM trainer after the cessation of active flying duties;
b)
An experienced non-flight crew CRM trainer having a knowledge of HPL, may also
be, and continue to be, a CRM trainer;
c)
A former flight crew member having knowledge of HPL may become a CRM trainer if
he maintains adequate knowledge of the operation and aircraft type and meets
the provisions of paragraphs 15.1 (a) to (b) above.
15.3 Instructors
ground school. Shall have satisfied the conditions in 15.1 or .2 above, and:
a) Have completed initial CRM
training; and
b) Be supervised by a suitably qualified CRM instructor when conducting their first initial CRM training sessions; and
c) Have the knowledge and ability to
teach the subjects detailed in relevant parts of the Egyptian Civil Aviation
Human Standards Handbook (ECAHSH).
d) Complete the arrangements detailed
in paragraph 16.
15.4 Instructors
simulator/base. Shall have satisfied the conditions in 15.1 or .2 above, and:
a) Have the knowledge detailed in
relevant parts of the Egyptian Civil Aviation Human Standards Handbook
(ECAHSH).
b) Complete
the arrangements detailed in paragraph 16.
15.5 Instructors
line. Shall have satisfied the conditions in 15.1 or .2 above, and:
a) Have the knowledge detailed in
relevant parts of the Egyptian Civil Aviation Human Standards Handbook
(ECAHSH).
b) Complete
the arrangements detailed in paragraph 16.
a) they have the knowledge specified for their
relevant role, and
b) they have the necessary instructional skills,
and
c) they are able to assess crews’ CRM performance,
and
d) they are able to facilitate a constructive
debrief of the above.
17. CRM Instructor Examiners (CRMIE). The ECAA will authorize suitably
experienced and qualified ECAA inspectors and accredited instructors as being
competent to carry out CRM training, to be approved CRMIE.
18. Revalidation criteria
18.1 Instructors Ground School. The accreditation will be for an initial period of three years. Thereafter, re-accreditation will be at the discretion of the ECAA and subject to the following:
a) The instructor shall have conducted at
least two courses of training in every yearly period within the three year
accreditation period,
b) For re-accreditation, one course of
training, or a part thereof, within the last 12 months of the accreditation
period will be observed by a CRMIE.
18.2 Line training captains will be
accredited by a company CRMIE on a three yearly renewal basis. The
accreditation process may be done as a workshop or during actual line training.
20. Company Approval. All certificate holders shall fulfill
the minimum requirements of this human factor circular and all related
regulatory materials in order to be recertified. The human factors concepts
shall be reflected in all the SOPs used within the company. All safety, IEP and
quality audits and checklists shall address the issues related to human factors
and identify their effectivness.
21. Charges. The charge for the observation
and the issue of a CRMI authorisation will be £E???????.