Physical
Characteristics
(a) Runways:
(1)
Number
and orientation of runways:
(i) Many factors affect the
determination of the orientation, siting and number of runways. One important
factor is the usability factor, as determined by the wind distribution, which
is specified hereunder. Another important factor is the alignment of the runway
to facilitate the provision of approaches conforming to the approach surface
specifications of Subpart G,
information concerning these and other
factors is given in EAC 139-41. When a new instrument runway is being located,
particular attention needs to be given to areas over which aeroplanes will be
required to fly when following instrument approach and missed approach
procedures, so as to ensure that obstacles in these areas or other factors will
not restrict the operation of the aeroplanes for which the runway is intended.
(ii) The number and orientation of
runways at an aerodrome should be such that the usability factor of the
aerodrome is not less than 95 per cent for the aeroplanes that the aerodrome is
intended to serve.
(2) The siting and orientation of runways at an
aerodrome should, where possible, be such that the arrival and departure tracks
minimize interference with areas approved for residential use and other noise
sensitive areas close to the aerodrome in order to avoid future noise problems.
Note: Guidance on how to address noise problems is
provided in the EAC139-16, and in the ECAR Part 36.
(3) Choice
of maximum permissible cross-wind components: In the application of
.309(a)(1)(ii) it should be assumed that landing or take-off of aeroplanes is,
in normal circumstances, precluded when the cross-wind component exceeds:
(i) 37 km/h (20 kt) in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field
length is 1500 m or over, except that when poor runway braking action owing to
an insufficient longitudinal coefficient of friction is experienced with some
frequency, a cross-wind component not exceeding 24 km/h (13 kt) should be
assumed;
(ii) 24 km/h
(13 kt) in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is 1200 m or up
to but not including 1500 m; and
(iii) 19 km/h
(10 kt) in the case of aeroplanes whose reference field length is less than
1200 m.
Note: In EAC139-41, guidance is given on factors affecting the
calculation of the estimate of the usability factor and allowances which may
have to be made to take account of the effect of unusual circumstances.
(4) Data to
be used: The selection of data to be used for the calculation of the usability
factor should be based on reliable wind distribution statistics that extend
over as long a period as possible, preferably of not less than five years. The
observations used should be made at least eight times daily and spaced at equal
intervals of time.
Note: These winds are mean winds. Reference to the
need for some allowance for gusty conditions is made in EAC 139-41.
(5) Location of threshold: A threshold should normally be located at
the extremity of a runway unless operational considerations justify the choice
of another location.
Note: Guidance on the siting of the threshold is
given in EAC 139-50.
(6) When it is necessary to displace a threshold, either permanently
or temporarily, from its normal location, account should be taken of the
various factors which may have a bearing on the location of the threshold.
Where this displacement is due to an unserviceable runway condition, a cleared
and graded area of at least 60 m in length should be available between the
unserviceable area and the displaced threshold. Additional distance should also
be provided to meet the requirements of the runway end safety area as
appropriate.
Note: Guidance on factors
which may be considered in the determination of the location of a displaced
threshold is given in EAC 139-50.
(7) Actual length of primary runway: Except as provided in .309(a)(8),
the actual runway length to be provided for a primary runway should be adequate
to meet the operational requirements of the aeroplanes for which the runway is
intended and should be not less than the longest length determined by applying
the corrections for local conditions to the operations and performance
characteristics of the relevant aeroplanes.
Note 1: This requirement does not necessarily mean providing for
operations by the critical aeroplane at its maximum mass.
Note 2: Both take-off and landing requirements need to be considered
when determining the length of runway to be provided and the need for
operations to be conducted in both directions of the runway.
Note 3: Local conditions that may need to be considered include
elevation, temperature, runway slope, humidity and the runway surface
characteristics.
Note 4: When performance data on aeroplanes for which the runway is
intended are not known, guidance on the determination of the actual length of a
primary runway by application of general correction factors is given in ECA
139-9.
(8) Actual
length of secondary runway: The length of a secondary runway should be
determined similarly to primary runways except that it needs only to be
adequate for those aeroplanes which require to use that secondary runway in
addition to the other runway or runways in order to obtain a usability factor
of at least 95 per cent.
(9) Actual
length of runways with stopways or clearways:
Where a runway is associated with a stopway or clearway, an actual
runway length less than that resulting from application of .309(a)(6) or (7),
as appropriate, may be considered satisfactory, but in such a case any
combination of runway, stopway and clearway provided should permit compliance
with the operational requirements for take-off and landing of the aeroplanes
the runway is intended to serve.
Note: Guidance on use of stopways and clearways is given in EAC 139-42.
(10) Width of
runways: The width of a runway should be not less than the appropriate
dimension specified in the following tabulation:
Code letter
|
Code
number |
A |
B |
C |
D |
E |
F |
|
1a |
18 m |
18 m |
23 m |
|
|
|
|
2a |
23 m |
23 m |
30 m |
|
|
|
|
3 |
30 m |
30 m |
30 m |
45 m |
|
|
|
4 |
|
|
45 m |
45 m |
45 m |
60 m |
a. The width of a precision
approach runway should be not less than 30 m where the code number is 1 or 2.
Note 1: The combinations of code numbers and
letters for which widths are specified have been developed for typical
aeroplane characteristics.
Note 2: Factors affecting runway width are given in
EAC 139-9.
(11) Minimum
distance between parallel non-instrument runways: Where parallel non-instrument
runways are intended for simultaneous use, the minimum distance between their
centre lines should be:
(i) 210 m
where the higher code number is 3 or 4;
(ii) 150 m
where the higher code number is 2; and
(iii) 120 m
where the higher code number is 1.
Note: Procedures for wake turbulence categorization of aircraft and wake
turbulence separation minima are contained in ECAR Part 173
(12) Minimum
distance between parallel instrument runways: Where parallel instrument runways
are intended for simultaneous use subject to conditions specified in the ECAR
Part 173, the minimum distance between their centre lines should be: 1035 m for
independent parallel approaches; 915 m for dependent parallel approaches; 760 m
for independent parallel departures; and 760 m for segregated parallel
operations; except that:
(i) For segregated parallel operations the
specified minimum distance:
(A) May be decreased by 30 m for each 150 m that
the arrival runway is staggered toward the arriving aircraft, to a minimum of
300 m; and
(B) Should be increased by 30 m for each 150 m that
the arrival runway is staggered away from the arriving aircraft;
(ii) For independent parallel approaches,
combinations of minimum distances and associated conditions other than those
specified in ECAR 173 may be applied when it is determined that such
combinations would not adversely affect the safety of aircraft operations.
(13) Longitudinal
slopes on runways: The slope computed by
dividing the difference between the maximum and minimum elevation along the
runway centre line by the runway length should not exceed:
(i) 1 per
cent where the code number is 3 or 4; and
(ii) 2 per
cent where the code number is 1 or 2.
(14) Along no
portion of a runway should the longitudinal slope exceed:
(i) 1.25
per cent where the code number is 4, except that for the first and last quarter
of the length of the runway the longitudinal slope should not exceed 0.8 per
cent;
(ii) 1.5 per
cent where the code number is 3, except that for the first and last quarter of
the length of a precision approach runway category II or III the longitudinal
slope should not exceed 0.8 per cent; and
(iii) 2 per
cent where the code number is 1 or 2.
(15) Longitudinal
slope changes: Where slope changes cannot be avoided, a slope change between
two consecutive slopes should not exceed:
(i) 1.5 per cent where the code number is 3 or
4; and
(ii) 2 per cent where the code number is 1 or 2.
Note: Guidance on slope changes before a runway is
given in EAC 139-44.
(16) The
transition from one slope to another should be accomplished by a curved surface
with a rate of change not exceeding:
(i) 0.1 per
cent per 30 m (minimum radius of curvature of 30000 m) where the code number is
4;
(ii) 0.2 per
cent per 30 m (minimum radius of curvature of 15000 m) where the code number is
3; and
(iii) 0.4 per
cent per 30 m (minimum radius of curvature of 7500 m) where the code number is
1 or 2.
(17) Sight
distance: Where slope changes cannot be avoided, they should be such that there
will be an unobstructed line of sight from:
(i) Any
point 3 m above a runway to all other points 3 m above the runway within a
distance of at least half the length of the runway where the code letter is C,
D, E or F.
(ii) Any
point 2 m above a runway to all other points 2 m above the runway within a
distance of at least half the length of the runway where the code letter is B;
and
(iii) Any
point 1.5 m above a runway to all other points 1.5 m above the runway within a
distance of at least half the length of the runway where the code letter is A.
Note: Consideration will have to be given to providing an unobstructed
line of sight over the entire length of a single runway where a full-length
parallel taxiway is not available. Where an aerodrome has intersecting runways,
additional criteria on the line of sight of the intersection area would need to
be considered for operational safety. See EAC 139-9.
(18) Distance
between slope changes: Undulations or appreciable changes in slopes located
close together along a runway should be avoided. The distance between the
points of intersection of two successive curves should not be less than:
(i) The sum
of the absolute numerical values of the corresponding slope changes multiplied
by the appropriate value as follows:
(A) 30000 m where the code number is 4;
(B) 15000 m where the code number is 3; and
(C) 5000 m where the code number is 1 or 2; or
(ii) 45 m;
whichever is greater.
Note:
Guidance on implementing this requirement is given in EAC 139-44.
(19) Transverse
slopes: To promote the most rapid drainage of water, the runway surface should,
if practicable, be cambered except where a single crossfall from high to low in
the direction of the wind most frequently associated with rain would ensure
rapid drainage. The transverse slope should ideally be:
(i) 1.5 per cent where the code letter is C, D,
E or F; and
(ii) 2 per cent where the code letter is A or B;
but in any event should not
exceed 1.5 per cent or 2 per cent, as applicable, nor be less than 1 per cent
except at runway or taxiway intersections where flatter slopes may be
necessary.
For a cambered surface the
transverse slope on each side of the centre line should be symmetrical.
Note: On wet runways with cross-wind conditions the problem of
aquaplaning from poor drainage is apt to be accentuated. In EAC 139-47,
information is given concerning this problem and other relevant factors.
(20) The
transverse slope should be substantially the same throughout the length of a
runway except at an intersection with another runway or a taxiway where an even
transition should be provided taking account of the need for adequate drainage.
Note: Guidance on transverse slope is given in EAC139-11.
(21) Strength
of runways: A runway should be capable of withstanding the traffic of
aeroplanes the runway is intended to serve.
(22) The
surface of a runway shall be constructed without irregularities that would
result in loss in friction characteristics or otherwise adversely affect the
take-off or landing of an aircraft.
Note 1: Surface irregularities may adversely affect the take-off or
landing of an aeroplane by causing excessive bouncing, pitching, vibration, or
other difficulties in the control of an aeroplane.
Note 2: Guidance on design tolerances and other
information is given in EAC139-45. Additional guidance is included in
EAC139-11.
(23) The surface of a paved runway shall be so constructed as to provide
good friction characteristics when the runway is wet.
(24) Measurements
of the friction characteristics of a new or resurfaced runway should be made
with a continuous friction measuring device using self-wetting features in
order to assure that the design objectives with respect to its friction
characteristics have been achieved.
Note: Guidance on friction characteristics of new
runway surfaces is given in EAC 139-47. Additional guidance is included in EAC
139-19.
(25) The
average surface texture depth of a new surface should be not less than 1.0mm.
Note 1: This
normally requires some form of special surface treatment.
Note 2: Guidance on methods used to measure surface
texture is given in the EAC 139-19.
(26) When the
surface is grooved or scored, the grooves or scorings should be either
perpendicular to the runway centre line or parallel to non-perpendicular
transverse joints, where applicable.
Note: Guidance on methods for improving the runway
surface texture is given in the EAC 139-11.
(b) Runway shoulders:
Note: Guidance on characteristics and treatment of runway shoulders is
given in EAC 139-48, and in EAC 139-9.
(1) General:
Runway shoulders should be provided for a runway where the code letter is D or
E, and the runway width is less than 60 m
(2) Runway
shoulders should be provided for a runway where the code letter is F.
(3) Width of
runway shoulders: The runway shoulders should extend symmetrically on each side
of the runway so that the overall width of the runway and its shoulders is not
less than:
(i) 60 m
where the code letter is D or E; and
(ii) 75 m
where the code letter is F.
(4) Slopes
on runway shoulders: The surface of the shoulder that abuts the runway should
be flush with the surface of the runway and its transverse slope should not
exceed 2.5 per cent.
(5) Strength
of runway shoulders: A runway shoulder should be prepared or constructed so as
to be capable, in the event of an aeroplane running off the runway, of
supporting the aeroplane without inducing structural damage to the aeroplane
and of supporting ground vehicles which may operate on the shoulder.
Note: Guidance on strength of runway shoulders is given in EAC 139-9.
(c) Runway
turn pads:
(1) General: Where the end of a runway
is not served by a taxiway or a taxiway turnaround and where the code letter is
D, E or F, a runway turn pad shall be provided to facilitate a 180-degree turn
of aeroplanes. (See
Figure 3-1.)
Figure 3-1: Typical turn pad layout
(2) Where the end of a runway is not served by a taxiway or
a taxiway turnaround and where the code letter is A, B or C, a runway turn pad
should be provided to facilitate a 180-degree turn of aeroplanes.
Note 1: Such areas may also be useful if provided along a runway to
reduce taxiing time and distance for aeroplanes which may not require the full
length of the runway.
Note 2: Guidance on the design of the runway turn pads is available in
the EAC 139-9. Guidance on taxiway turnaround as an alternate facility is
available in the EAC 139-10.
(3) The
runway turn pad may be located on either the left or right side of the runway
and adjoining the runway pavement at both ends of the runway and at some
intermediate locations where deemed necessary.
Note: The initiation of the turn would be facilitated by locating the
turn pad on the left side of the runway, since the left seat is the normal
position of the pilot-in-command.
(4) The
intersection angle of the runway turn pad with the runway should not exceed 30
degrees.
(5) The nose
wheel steering angle to be used in the design of the runway turn pad should not
exceed 45 degrees.
(6) The
design of a runway turn pad shall be such that, when the cockpit of the
aeroplane for which the turn pad is intended remains over the turn pad marking,
the clearance distance between any wheel of the aeroplane landing gear and the
edge of the turn pad shall be not less than that given by the following
tabulation:
|
Code letter |
Clearance |
|
A |
1.5 m |
|
B |
2.25 m |
|
C |
3 m if the turn pad is intended to be used by aeroplanes with a wheel
base less than 18 m; |
|
|
4.5 m if the turn pad is intended to be used by aeroplanes with a
wheel base equal to or greater than 18 m. |
|
D |
4.5 m |
|
E |
4.5 m |
|
F |
4.5 m |
Note: Wheel base means the distance from the nose gear to the geometric
centre of the main gear.
(7) Where
severe weather conditions and resultant lowering of surface friction
characteristics prevail, a larger wheel-to-edge clearance of 6 m should be
provided where the code letter is E or F.
(8) Slopes
on runway turn pads: The longitudinal and transverse slopes on a runway turn
pad should be sufficient to prevent the accumulation of water on the surface
and facilitate rapid drainage of surface water. The slopes should be the same
as those on the adjacent runway pavement surface.
(9) Strength
of runway turn pads: The strength of a runway turn pad should be at least equal
to that of the adjoining runway which it serves, due consideration being given
to the fact that the turn pad will be subjected to slow-moving traffic making
hard turns and consequent higher stresses on the pavement.
Note: Where a runway turn pad is provided with flexible pavement, the
surface would need to be capable of withstanding the horizontal shear forces
exerted by the main landing gear tires during turning manoeuvres.
(10) Surface
of runway turn pads: The surface of a runway turn pad shall not have surface
irregularities that may cause damage to an aeroplane using the turn pad.
(11) The
surface of a runway turn pad should be so constructed as to provide good
friction characteristics for aeroplanes using the facility when the surface is
wet.
(12) Shoulders
for runway turn pads: The runway turn pads should be provided with shoulders of
such width as is necessary to prevent surface erosion by the jet blast of the
most demanding aeroplane for which the turn pad is intended, and any possible
foreign object damage to the aeroplane engines.
Note: As a minimum, the width of the shoulders would need to cover the
outer engine of the most demanding aeroplane and thus may be wider than the
associated runway shoulders.
(13) The
strength of runway turn pad shoulders should be capable of withstanding the
occasional passage of the aeroplane it is designed to serve without inducing
structural damage to the aeroplane and to the supporting ground vehicles that
may operate on the shoulder.
(d) Runway
strips:
(1) General :
A runway and any associated stopways shall be included in a runway strip.
(2) Length
of runway strips: A strip shall extend before the threshold and beyond the end
of the runway or stopway for a distance of at least:
(i) 60 m
where the code number is 2, 3 or 4;
(ii) 60 m
where the code number is 1 and the runway is an instrument one; and
(iii) 30 m
where the code number is 1 and the runway is a non-instrument one.
(3) Width of
runway strips: A strip including a precision approach runway shall, wherever
practicable, extend laterally to a distance of at least:
(i) 150 m
where the code number is 3 or 4; and
(ii) 75 m
where the code number is 1 or 2;
on each side of the centre line of the runway and its extended centre
line throughout the length of the strip.
(4) A strip
including a non-precision approach runway should extend laterally to a distance
of at least:
(i) 150 m
where the code number is 3 or 4; and
(ii) 75 m
where the code number is 1 or 2;
on each side of the centre line of the runway and its extended centre
line throughout the length of the strip.
(5) A strip
including a non-instrument runway should extend on each side of the centre line
of the runway and its extended centre line throughout the length of the strip,
to a distance of at least:
(i) 75 m
where the code number is 3 or 4;
(ii) 40 m
where the code number is 2; and
() 30 m where the code number is 1.
(6) Objects
on runway strips: An object situated on a runway strip which may endanger
aeroplanes should be regarded as an obstacle and should, as far as practicable,
be removed.
Note: See 139.335(i) for information regarding siting of equipment and
installations on runway strips.
(7) No fixed
object, other than visual aids required for air navigation purposes and
satisfying the relevant frangibility requirement in subpart H, shall be
permitted on a runway strip:
(i) Within
77.5 m of the runway centre line of a precision approach runway category I, II
or III where the code number is 4 and the code letter is F; or
(ii) Within
60 m of the runway centre line of a precision approach runway category I, II or
III where the code number is 3 or 4; or
(iii) Within
45 m of the runway centre line of a precision approach runway category I where
the code number is 1 or 2.
No mobile object shall be permitted on this part of the runway strip
during the use of the runway for landing or take-off.
(8) Grading
of runway strips: That portion of a strip of an instrument runway within a
distance of at least:
(i) 75 m
where the code number is 3 or 4; and
(ii) 40 m
where the code number is 1 or 2;
from the centre line of the runway and its extended centre line should
provide a graded area for aeroplanes which the run-way is intended to serve in
the event of an aeroplane running off the runway.
Note: Guidance on grading of a greater area of a strip including a
precision approach runway where the code number is 3 or 4 is given in
EAC139-48.
(9) That
portion of a strip of a non-instrument runway within a distance of at least:
(i) 75 m
where the code number is 3 or 4;
(ii) 40 m
where the code number is 2; and
(iii) 30 m
where the code number is 1;
from the centre line of the runway and its extended centre line should
provide a graded area for aeroplanes which the run-way is intended to serve in
the event of an aeroplane running off the runway.
(10) The
surface of that portion of a runway strip that abuts a runway, shoulder or
stopway shall be flush with the surface of the runway, shoulder or stopway.
(11) That
portion of a strip to at least 30 m before a threshold should be prepared
against blast erosion in order to protect a landing aeroplane from the danger
of an exposed edge.
(12) Longitudinal
slopes: A longitudinal slope along that portion of a strip to be graded should
not exceed:
(i) 1.5 per
cent where the code number is 4;
(ii) 1.75
per cent where the code number is 3; and
(iii) 2 per
cent where the code number is 1 or 2.
(13) Longitudinal
slope changes: Slope changes on that portion of a strip to be graded should be
as gradual as practicable and abrupt changes or sudden reversals of slopes
avoided.
(14) Transverse
slopes: Transverse slopes on that portion of a strip to be graded should be
adequate to prevent the ac-cumulation of water on the surface but should not
exceed:
(i) 2.5 per
cent where the code number is 3 or 4; and
(ii) 3 per
cent where the code number is 1 or 2;
except that to facilitate drainage the slope for the first 3 m outward
from the runway, shoulder or stopway edge should be negative as measured in the
direction away from the runway and may be as great as 5 per cent.
(15) The
transverse slopes of any portion of a strip beyond that to be graded should not
exceed an upward slope of 5 per cent as measured in the direction away from the
runway.
(16) Strength
of instrument runway strips: That portion of a strip of an instrument runway
within a distance of at least:
(i) 75 m
where the code number is 3 or 4; and
(ii) 40 m
where the code number is 1 or 2;
from the centre line of the runway and its extended centre line should
be so prepared or constructed as to minimize hazards arising from differences
in load bearing capacity to aeroplanes which the runway is intended to serve in
the event of an aeroplane running off the runway.
Note: Guidance on preparation of runway strips is given in EAC 139-9.
(17) Strength
of non-instrument runway strips: That portion of a strip containing a
non-instrument runway within a distance of at least:
(i) 75 m
where the code number is 3 or 4;
(ii) 40 m
where the code number is 2; and
(iii) 30 m
where the code number is 1;
from the centre line of the runway and its extended centre line should
be so prepared or constructed as to minimize hazards arising from differences
in load bearing capacity to aeroplanes which the runway is intended to serve in
the event of an aeroplane running off the runway.
(e) Runway end safety areas:
(1) General:
A runway end safety area shall be provided at each end of a runway strip where:
(i) The
code number is 3 or 4; and
(ii) The
code number is 1 or 2 and the runway is an instrument one.
Note: Guidance on runway end safety areas is given in EAC139-49.
(2) Dimensions
of runway end safety areas: A runway end safety area shall extend from the end
of a runway strip to a distance of at least 90 m.
(3) A runway
end safety area should, as far as practicable, extend from the end of a runway
strip to a distance of at least:
(i) 240 m
where the code number is 3 or 4; and
(ii) 120 m
where the code number is 1 or 2.
(4) The
width of a runway end safety area shall be at least twice that of the
associated runway.
(5) The
width of a runway end safety area should, wherever practicable, be equal to
that of the graded portion of the associated runway strip.
(6) Objects
on runway end safety areas: An object situated on a runway end safety area
which may endanger aeroplanes should be regarded as an obstacle and should, as
far as practicable, be removed.
Note: See 139.335(i) for information regarding siting of equipment and
installations on runway end safety areas.
(7) Clearing
and grading of runway end safety areas: A runway end safety area should provide
a cleared and graded area for aeroplanes which the runway is intended to serve
in the event of an aeroplane undershooting or overrunning the runway.
Note: The surface of the ground in the runway end safety area does not
need to be prepared to the same quality as the runway strip. See, however,
.309(d)(11).
(8) General:
The slopes of a runway end safety area should be such that no part of the
runway end safety area penetrates the approach or take-off climb surface.
(9) Longitudinal
slopes: The longitudinal slopes of a runway end safety area should not exceed a
downward slope of 5 per cent. Longitudinal slope changes should be as gradual
as practicable and abrupt changes or sudden reversals of slopes avoided.
(10) Transverse
slopes: The transverse slopes of a runway end safety area should not exceed an
upward or downward slope of 5 per cent. Transitions between differing slopes
should be as gradual as practicable.
(11) Strength
of runway end safety areas: A runway end safety area should be so prepared or
constructed as to reduce the risk of damage to an aeroplane undershooting or
overrunning the runway, enhance aeroplane deceleration and facilitate the
movement of rescue and fire fighting vehicles as required in .337(z) to
.337(ab).
Note: Guidance on strength of a runway end safety
area is given in EAC139-9
(f) Clearways:
Note: The inclusion of detailed specifications for clearways in this
section is not intended to imply that a clearway has to be provided. EAC139-42
provides information on the use of clearways.
(1) Location
of clearways: The origin of a clearway should be at the end of the take-off run
available.
(2) Length
of clearways: The length of a clearway should not exceed half the length of the
take-off run available.
(3) Width of
clearways: A clearway should extend laterally to a distance of at least 75 m on
each side of the extended centre line of the runway.
(4) Slopes
on clearways: The ground in a clearway should not project above a plane having
an upward slope of 1.25 per cent, the lower limit of this plane being a
horizontal line which:
(i) Is
perpendicular to the vertical plane containing the runway centre line; and
(ii) Passes
through a point located on the runway centre line at the end of the take-off
run available.
Note: Because of transverse or longitudinal slopes on a runway, shoulder
or strip, in certain cases the lower limit of the clearway plane specified
above may be below the corresponding elevation of the runway, shoulder or
strip. It is not intended that these surfaces be graded to conform with the
lower limit of the clearway plane nor is it intended that terrain or objects
which are above the clearway plane beyond the end of the strip but below the
level of the strip be removed unless it is considered they may endanger
aeroplanes.
(5) Slopes
changes on clearways: Abrupt upward changes in slope should be avoided when the
slope on the ground in a clearway is relatively small or when the mean slope is
upward. In such situations, in that portion of the clearway within a distance
of 22.5 m or half the runway width whichever is greater on each side of the
extended centre line, the slopes, slope changes and the transition from runway
to clearway should generally conform with those of the runway with which the
clearway is associated.
(6) Objects
on clearways: An object situated on a clearway which may endanger aeroplanes in
the air should be regarded as an obstacle and should be removed.
Note: See 139.335(i) for information regarding siting of equipment and
installations on clearways.
(g) Stopways:
Note: The inclusion of detailed specifications for stopways in this
section is not intended to imply that a stopway has to be provided. EAC139-42
provides information on the use of stopways.
(1) Width of
stopways: A stopway shall have the same width as the runway with which it is
associated.
(2) Slopes
on stopways: Slopes and changes in slope on a stopway, and the transition from
a runway to a stopway, should comply with the specifications of .309(a)(12) to .309(a)(18) for the runway with which the stopway is associated
except that:
(i) The
limitation in .309(a)(13) of a 0.8 per cent slope for the first and last
quarter of the length of a runway need not be applied to the stopway; and
(ii) At the
junction of the stopway and runway and along the stopway the maximum rate of
slope change may be 0.3 per cent per 30 m (minimum radius of curvature of 10
000 m) for a runway where the code number is 3 or 4.
(3) Strength
of stopways: A stopway should be prepared or constructed so as to be capable,
in the event of an abandoned take-off, of supporting the aeroplane which the
stopway is intended to serve without inducing structural damage to the
aeroplane.
Note: EAC139-42 presents guidance relative to the support capability of
a stopway.
(4) Surface
of stopways: The surface of a paved stopway should be so constructed as to
provide a good coefficient of friction to be compatible with that of the
associated runway when the stopway is wet.
(5) The
friction characteristics of the surface of an unpaved stopway should not be
substantially less than that of the runway with which the stopway is
associated.
(h) Radio altimeter operating area:
(1) General:
A radio altimeter operating area should be established in the pre-threshold
area of a precision approach runway.
(2) Length
of the area: A radio altimeter operating area should extend before the
threshold for a distance of at least 300 m.
(3) Width of
the area: A radio altimeter operating area should extend laterally, on each
side of the extended centre line of the runway, to a distance of 60 m, except
that, when special circumstances so warrant, the distance may be reduced to no
less than 30 m if an aeronautical study indicates that such reduction would not
affect the safety of operations of aircraft.
(4) Longitudinal
slope changes: On a radio altimeter operating area, slope changes should be
avoided or kept to a minimum. Where slope changes cannot be avoided, the slope
changes should be as gradual as practicable and abrupt changes or sudden
reversals of slopes avoided. The rate of change between two consecutive slopes
should not exceed 2 per cent per 30 m.
Note: Guidance on radio altimeter operating area is given in EAC139-44
and in ECAR Part 173. Guidance on the use of radio altimeter is given in the
ECAR Part 172.
(a) Taxiways:
Note: Unless otherwise indicated the requirements in this section are
applicable to all types of taxiways.
(1) General:
Taxiways should be provided to permit the safe and expeditious surface movement
of aircraft.
Note: Guidance on layout of taxiways is given in EAC139-10.
(2)
Sufficient entrance and exit taxiways for a runway should be provided to
expedite the movement of aeroplanes to and from the runway and provision of
rapid exit taxiways considered when traffic volumes are high.
(3)
The design of a taxiway should be such that, when the cockpit of the
aeroplane for which the taxiway is intended remains over the taxiway centre
line markings, the clearance distance between the outer main wheel of the
aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway should be not less than that given by the
following tabulation:
(4)
As of 20 November 2008, the design of a taxiway shall be such that, when
the cockpit of the aeroplane for which the taxiway is intended remains over the
taxiway centre line markings, the clearance distance between the outer main
wheel of the aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway shall be not less than that
given by the following tabulation:
|
Code
letter |
Clearance |
|
A |
1.5 m |
|
B |
2.25 m |
|
C |
3 m
if the taxiway is intended to be used by aeroplanes with a wheel base less than 18 m; |
|
|
4.5
m if the taxiway is intended to be used by aeroplanes with a wheel base equal
to or greater than 18 m. |
|
D |
4.5 m |
|
E |
4.5 m |
|
F |
4.5 m |
Note 1: Wheel base means the distance from the nose gear to the
geometric centre of the main gear.
Note 2: Where the code letter is F and the traffic density is high, a
wheel-to-edge clearance greater than 4.5 m may be provided to permit higher
taxiing speeds.
(5) Width of taxiways: A straight
portion of a taxi-way should have a width of not less than that given by the
following tabulation:
|
Code
Letter |
Taxiway
width |
|
A |
|
|
B |
10.
|
|
C |
|
|
|
|
|
D |
|
|
E |
|
|
F |
|
Note: Guidance on width of taxiways is given in EAC139-10.
(6) Taxiway
curves: Changes in direction of taxiways should be as few and small as
possible. The radii of the curves should be compatible with the manoeuvring
capability and normal taxiing speeds of the aeroplanes for which the taxiway is
intended. The design of the curve should be such that, when the cockpit of the
aeroplane remains over the taxiway centre line markings, the clearance distance between the outer main wheels of the
aeroplane and the edge of the taxiway should not be less than those specified
in .311(a)(3).
Note 1: An example of widening taxiways to achieve the wheel clearance
specified is illustrated in Figure 3-1. Guidance on the values of suitable
dimensions is given in EAC139-10.
Note 2: The location of taxiway centre line markings and lights is
specified in .321(h)(4)
and .323(o)(10).
Note 3: Compound curves may reduce or eliminate the need for extra
taxiway width.
(7) Junctions
and intersections: To facilitate the movement of aeroplanes, fillets should be
provided at junctions and intersections of taxiways with runways, aprons and
other taxiways. The design of the fillets should ensure that the minimum wheel
clearances specified in .311(a)(3) are maintained when aeroplanes are
manoeuvring through the junctions or intersections.
Note: Consideration will have to be given to the aeroplane datum length
when designing fillets. Guidance on the design of fillets and the
definition of the term aeroplane datum length are given in EAC139-10.
(8) Taxiway
minimum separation distances: The
separation distance between the centre line of a taxiway and the centre line of
a runway, the centre line of a parallel taxiway or an object should not be less
than the appropriate dimension specified in Table 3-1, except that it may be
permissible to operate with lower separation distances at an existing aerodrome
if an aeronautical study indicates that such lower separation distances would
not adversely affect the safety or significantly affect the regularity of
operations of aeroplanes.
Note 1: Guidance on factors which may be considered in the aeronautical
study is given in EAC139-10.
Note 2: ILS and MLS installations may also influence the location of
taxiways due to interferences to ILS and MLS signals by a taxiing or stopped
aircraft. Information on critical and sensitive areas surrounding ILS and MLS
installations is contained in ECAR Part 171.
Note 3: The separation distances of Table 3-1, column 10, do not
necessarily provide the capability of making a normal turn from one taxiway to
another parallel taxiway. Guidance for this condition is given in EAC139-10.
Note 4: The separation distance between the centre line of an aircraft
stand taxilane and an object shown in Table 3-1, column 12, may need to be
increased when jet exhaust wake velocity may cause hazardous conditions for
ground servicing.
(9) Longitudinal
slopes: The longitudinal slope of a taxiway should not exceed:
(i) 1.5 per
cent where the code letter is C, D, E or F; and
(ii) 3 per
cent where the code letter is A or B.
(10) Longitudinal slope changes:
Where slope changes on a taxiway cannot be avoided, the transition from one
slope to another slope should be accomplished by a curved surface with a rate
of change not exceeding:
(i) 1 per
cent per 30 m (minimum radius of curvature of 3 000 m) where the code letter is
C, D, E or F; and
(ii) 1 per
cent per 25 m (minimum radius of curvature of 2 500 m) where the code letter is
A or B.
Location of taxiway centre line marking
(see .321(h)(4))
Location of taxiway centre line lights
(see .323(o)(10))
Taxiway
width (see .311(a)(4)
|
|
The figure shows an example of taxiway widening to
achieve the specified wheel clearances on taxiway curves (see .311(a)(5)).
Guidance material on suitable dimensions is given in EAC139-10.
Figure 3-2: Taxiway curve
Table 3-1: Taxiway minimum separation distances
Note 1: The separation distances
shown in columns
Note 2: The distances in columns
(11) Sight
distance: Where a change in slope on a taxi-way cannot be avoided, the change
should be such that, from any point:
(i) 3 m
above the taxiway, it will be possible to see the whole surface of the taxiway
for a distance of at least 300 m from that point, where the code letter is C,
D, E or F;
(ii) 2 m
above the taxiway, it will be possible to see the whole surface of the taxiway
for a distance of at least 200 m from that point, where the code letter is B;
and
(iii) 1.5 m
above the taxiway, it will be possible to see the whole surface of the taxiway
for a distance of at least 150 m from that point, where the code letter is A.
(12) Transverse
slopes: The transverse slopes of a taxiway should be sufficient to prevent the
accumulation of water on the surface of the taxiway but should not exceed:
(i) 1.5 per
cent where the code letter is C, D, E or F; and
(ii) 2 per
cent where the code letter is A or B.
Note: See .311(a)(12) regarding transverse slopes on an aircraft stand
taxilane.
(13) Strength
of taxiways: The strength of a taxiway should be at least equal to that of the
runway it serves, due consideration being given to the fact that a taxiway will
be subjected to a greater density of traffic and, as a result of slow moving
and stationary aeroplanes, to higher stresses than the runway it serves.
Note: Guidance on the relation of the strength of taxiways to the
strength of runways is given in EAC139-11.
(14) Surface
of taxiways: The surface of a taxiway should not have irregularities that cause
damage to aeroplane structures.
(15) The
surface of a paved taxiway should be so constructed as to provide good friction
characteristics when the taxiway is wet.
Note: The following specifications .311(a)(15) to .311(a)(18) detail
requirements particular to rapid exit taxiways. See Figure 3-2. General
requirements for taxiways also apply to this type of taxiway. Guidance on the
provision, location and design of rapid exit taxiways is included in EAC139-10.
(16) Rapid
exit taxiways: A rapid exit taxiway should:
(i) Be
designed with a radius of turn-off curve of at least:
(A) 550 m
where the code number is 3 or 4; and
(B) 275 m
where the code number is 1 or 2;
(ii) To
enable exit speeds under wet conditions of:
(A) 93 km/h
where the code number is 3 or 4; and
(B) 65 km/h
where the code number is 1 or 2.
Note: The locations of rapid exit taxiways along a runway are based on
several criteria described in EAC139-10, in addition to different speed criteria.
(17) The
radius of the fillet on the inside of the curve at a rapid exit taxiway should
be sufficient to provide a widened taxiway throat in order to facilitate early
recognition of the entrance and turn-off onto the taxiway.
(18) A rapid
exit taxiway should include a straight distance after the turn-off curve
sufficient for an exiting aircraft to come to a full stop clear of any
intersecting taxiway.
(19) The
intersection angle of a rapid exit taxiway with the runway should not be
greater than 45 nor less than 25 and preferably should be 30.
(20) Taxiways
on bridges: The width of that portion of a taxiway bridge capable of supporting
aeroplanes, as measured perpendicularly to the taxiway centre line, shall not
be less than the width of the graded area of the strip provided for that
taxiway, unless a proven method of lateral restraint is provided which shall
not be hazardous for aeroplanes for which the taxiway is intended.
(21) Access
should be provided to allow rescue and fire fighting vehicles to intervene in
both directions within the specified response time to the largest aeroplane for
which the taxiway bridge is intended.
Note: If aeroplane engines overhang the bridge structure, protection of
adjacent areas below the bridge from engine blast may be required.
(22) A bridge
should be con-structed on a straight section of the taxiway with a straight
section on both ends of the bridge to facilitate the alignment of aeroplanes
approaching the bridge.
Figure 3-3: Rapid exit taxiway
(b) Taxiway
shoulders:
Note: Guidance on characteristics of taxiway shoulders and on shoulder
treatment is given in the EAC 139-10.
(1) Straight
portions of a taxiway where the code letter is C, D, E or F should be provided
with shoulders which extend symmetrically on each side of the taxiway so that
the overall width of the taxiway and its shoulders on straight portions is not
less than:
(i) 60 m
where the code letter is F;
(ii) 44 m
where the code letter is E;
(iii) 38 m
where the code letter is D; and
(iv) 25 m
where the code letter is C.
On taxiway curves and on junctions or intersections where increased
pavement is provided, the shoulder width should be not less than that on the
adjacent straight portions of the taxiway.
(2) When a taxiway is intended to be used by
turbine-engined aeroplanes, the surface of the taxiway shoulder should be so
prepared as to resist erosion and the ingestion of the surface material by
aeroplane engines.
(c) Taxiway
strips:
Note: Guidance on characteristics of taxiway strips is given in EAC 139-10.
(1) General:
A taxiway, other than an aircraft stand taxilane, shall be included in a
taxiway strip.
(2) Width of
taxiway strips: A taxiway strip should extend symmetrically on each side of the
centre line of the taxiway throughout the length of the taxiway to at least the
distance from the centre line given in Table 3-1, column 11.
(3) Objects
on taxiway strips: The taxiway strip
should provide an area clear of objects which may endanger taxiing aeroplanes.
Note 1: See 139.335(i) for information regarding siting of equipment and
installations on taxiway strips.
Note 2: Consideration will have to be given to the location and design
of drains on a taxiway strip to prevent damage to an aeroplane accidentally
running off a taxiway. Suitably designed drain covers may be required.
(4) Grading
of taxiway strips: The centre portion of a taxiway strip should provide a
graded area to a distance from the centre line of the taxiway of at least:
(i) 11 m
where the code letter is A;
(ii) 12.5 m
where the code letter is B or C;
(iii) 19 m
where the code letter is D;
(iv) 22 m
where the code letter is E; and
(v) 30 m
where the code letter is F.
(5) Slopes
on taxiway strips: The surface of the strip should be flush at the edge of the
taxiway or shoulder, if provided, and the graded portion should not have an
upward transverse slope exceeding:
(i) 2.5 per
cent for strips where the code letter is C, D, E or F; and
(ii) 3 per
cent for strips of taxiways where the code letter is A or B;
The upward slope being measured with reference to the transverse slope
of the adjacent taxiway surface and not the horizontal. The downward transverse
slope should not exceed 5 per cent measured with reference to the horizontal.
(6) The
transverse slopes on any portion of a taxiway strip beyond that to be graded
should not exceed an upward or downward slope of 5 per cent as measured in the
direction away from the taxiway.
(d) Holding
bays, runway-holding positions, intermediate holding positions and road-holding
positions:
(1) General:
Holding bay(s) should be provided when the traffic density is medium or heavy.
(2) A
runway-holding position or positions shall be established:
(i) On the
taxiway, at the intersection of a taxiway and a runway; and
(ii) At an
intersection of a runway with another runway when the former runway is part of
a standard taxi route.
(3) A
runway-holding position shall be established on a taxiway if its location or
alignment of the taxiway is such that a taxiing aircraft or vehicle can
infringe an obstacle limitation surface or interfere with the operation of
radio navigation aids.
(4) An
intermediate holding position should be established on a taxiway at any point
other than a runway-holding position where it is desirable to define a specific
holding limit.
(5) A road
holding position shall be established at an intersection of a road with a
runway.
(6) Location: The distance between a holding bay, runway-holding
position established at a taxiway/runway intersection or road-holding position
and the centerline of a runway shall be in accordance with Table 3-2 and in the
case of a precision approach runway, such that a holding aircraft or vehicle
will not interfere with the operation of radio navigation aids.
(7) At elevations greater than 700 m (2 300 ft) the distance of 90 m
specified in Table 3-2 for a precision approach runway code number 4 should be
increased as follows:
(i) Up to an elevation of 2 000 m (6 600 ft); 1 m for every 100 m
(330 ft) in excess of 700 m (2 300 ft);
(ii) Elevation in excess of 2 000 m
(6 600 ft) and up to 4 000 m (13 320 ft); 13 m plus 1.5 m for every 100 m (330
ft) in excess of 2 000 m (6 600 ft); and
(iii) Elevation in excess of 4 000 m
(13 320 ft) and up to 5 000 m (16 650 ft); 43 m plus 2 m for every 100 m (330
ft) in excess of 4 000 m (13 320 ft).
(8) If a holding bay, runway-holding position or
road-holding position for a precision approach runway code number 4 is at a
greater elevation compared to the threshold, the distance of 90 m or 107.5 m,
as appropriate, specified in Table 3-2 should be further increased 5 m for
every metre the bay or position is higher than the threshold.
(9) The location of a runway-holding
position established in accordance with .311(d)(3) shall be such that a holding
aircraft or vehicle will not infringe the obstacle free zone, approach surface,
take-off climb surface or ILS/MLS critical/sensitive area or interfere with the
operation of radio navigation aids.
Table 3-2. Minimum distance from the runway centre
line
to a holding bay, runway-holding position or road-holding
position
a. If a holding bay, runway-holding position or
road-holding position is at a lower elevation compared to the threshold, the
distance may be decreased 5 m for every metre the bay or holding position is
lower than the threshold, contingent upon not infringing the inner transitional
surface.
b. This distance may need to be increased to avoid
interference with radio navigation aids, particularly the glide path and
localizer facilities. Information on critical and sensitive areas of ILS and MLS
is contained in ECAR 171 (see also .311(d)(6)).
Note 1: The distance of 90 m for code number 3 or 4 is based on an aircraft with a tail height of 20 m, a distance from the nose to the highest part of the tail of 52.7 m and a nose height of 10 m holding at an angle of 45 or more with respect to the runway centre line, being clear of the obstacle free zone and not accountable for the calculation of OCA/H.
Note 2: The distance of 60 m for code number 2 is based on an aircraft
with a tail height of 8 m, a distance from the nose to the highest part of the
tail of 24.6 m and a nose height of 5.2 m holding at an angle of 45 or more
with respect to the runway centre line, bein g clear of the obstacle free zone.
c. Where the code letter is F, this distance should
be 107.5 m.
Note: The distance of 107.5 m for code number 4 where the code letter is F is based on an aircraft with a tail height of 24 m, a distance from the nose to the highest part of the tail of 62.2 m and a nose height of 10 m holding at an angle of 45 or more with respect to the runway center line, being clear of the obstacle free zone.
(a) Aprons:
(1) General: Aprons should be provided where necessary to permit the on-
and off-loading of passengers, cargo or mail as well as the servicing of
aircraft without interfering with the aerodrome traffic.
(2) Size of aprons: The total apron
area should be adequate to permit expeditious handling of the aerodrome traffic
at its maximum anticipated density.
(3) Strength of aprons: Each part of
an apron should be capable of withstanding the traffic of the aircraft it is
intended to serve, due consideration being given to the fact that some portions
of the apron will be subjected to a higher density of traffic and, as a result
of slow moving or stationary aircraft, to higher stresses than a runway.
(4) Slopes on aprons: Slopes on an apron, including those on an aircraft
stand taxilane, should be sufficient to prevent accumulation of water on the
surface of the apron but should be kept as level as drainage requirements
permit.
(6) On an aircraft stand the maximum slope should
not exceed 1 per cent.
(6) Clearance distances on aircraft
stands: An aircraft stand should provide the following minimum clearances
between an aircraft using the stand and any adjacent building, aircraft on
another stand and other objects:
|
Code letter |
Clearance |
|
A |
3 m |
|
B |
3 m |
|
C |
4.5 m |
|
D |
7.5 m |
|
E |
7.5 m |
|
F |
7.5 m |
When
special circumstances so warrant, these clearances may be reduced at a nose-in aircraft stand, where the code letter
is D, E or F:
(i) Between the terminal, including
any fixed passenger bridge, and the nose of an aircraft; and
(ii) Over any portion of the stand
provided with azimuth guidance by a visual docking guidance system.
Note: On
aprons, consideration also has to be given to the provision of service roads
and to manoeuvring and storage area for ground equipment (see EAC 139-10, for
guidance on storage of ground equipment).
(b) Isolated aircraft parking position:
(1) An isolated aircraft parking
position shall be designated or the aerodrome control tower shall be advised of
an area or areas suitable for the parking of an aircraft which is known or
believed to be the subject of unlawful interference, or which for other reasons
needs isolation from normal aerodrome activities.
(2) The isolated aircraft parking
position should be located at the maximum distance practicable and in any case
never less than 100 m from other parking positions, buildings or public areas,
etc. Care should be taken to ensure that the position is not located over
underground utilities such as gas and aviation fuel and, to the extent
feasible, electrical or communication cables.
(a) Each certificate holder shall
maintain, and promptly repair the pavement of, each runway, taxiway, loading
ramp, and parking area on the airport which is available for air carrier use as
follows:
(1) The pavement edges shall not
exceed 8 cm (3 inches) difference in elevation between abutting pavement
sections and between full strength pavement and abutting shoulders.
(2) The pavement shall have no hole
exceeding 8 cm (3 inches) in depth nor any hole the slope of which from any
point in the hole to the nearest point at the lip of the hole is 45 degrees or
greater as measured from the pavement surface plane, unless, in either case,
the entire area of the hole can be covered by a 13 cm (5 inches) diameter
circle.
(3) The pavement shall be free of
cracks and surface variations which could impair directional control of air
carrier aircraft.
(4) Mud, dirt, sand, loose
aggregate, debris, foreign objects, rubber deposits, and other contaminants
shall be removed promptly and as completely as practicable.
(5) Any chemical solvent that is
used to clean any pavement area shall be removed as soon as possible,
consistent with the instructions of the manufacturer of the solvent.
(6) The pavement shall be
sufficiently drained and free of depressions to prevent ponding that obscures
markings or impairs safe aircraft operations.
(b) EAC 139-26 contain standards and
procedures for the maintenance and configuration of paved areas which are
acceptable to the ECAA.